tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-84270958288099404502024-02-22T23:43:44.194-08:00About ResearchAl-Mansor Abu saidhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09355698983918954375noreply@blogger.comBlogger37125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8427095828809940450.post-34559146282183483542017-10-23T20:33:00.001-07:002017-10-23T20:34:52.197-07:00Ontology<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgz9L9rImJI_q-_vzrU4Gq07SFiX9hLBUX4zLSIoYUerc5x9_4raPA8KBB64RX8lfnFeAyA9rkJCjfkIamPqnxMs8oAi1SNlQPt1sFgOHPkwY0D0AgI3LRwk08C-aUZg_xGtLT4U-UrH0pY/s1600/ontology-dimensions-map_20070423b.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="480" data-original-width="664" height="288" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgz9L9rImJI_q-_vzrU4Gq07SFiX9hLBUX4zLSIoYUerc5x9_4raPA8KBB64RX8lfnFeAyA9rkJCjfkIamPqnxMs8oAi1SNlQPt1sFgOHPkwY0D0AgI3LRwk08C-aUZg_xGtLT4U-UrH0pY/s400/ontology-dimensions-map_20070423b.png" width="400" /></a></div>
I. Definition<br />
<br />
Ontology is the investigation of being. It concentrates on a few related inquiries:<br />
<br />
What things exist? (stars yes, unicorns no, numbers . . . indeed?)<br />
<br />
What classifications do they have a place with? (are numbers physical properties or just thoughts?)<br />
<br />
Is there such an incredible concept as target reality?<br />
<br />
What does the verb "to be" mean?<br />
<br />
Some of these inquiries may appear to be agonizingly unique and not extremely helpful, but rather they are and dependably have been immensely essential to a few logicians, particularly to the individuals who put stock in foundationalism. Foundationalist savants trust that to touch base at truth it is important to begin with the most central issues—to make certain about the establishments of philosophy– and after that work our way up from that point to more particular inquiries. In the event that you trust in foundationalism, at that point presumably the most essential inquiries are ontological inquiries!<br />
<br />
Philosophy is likewise very important to religions and deep sense of being. Regardless of what your convictions about otherworldly existence, they have an ontological measurement. The greater part of the accompanying are ontological proclamations:<br />
<br />
Everything is made of iotas and vitality<br />
<br />
Everything is made of awareness<br />
<br />
You have a spirit<br />
<br />
You have a brain<br />
<br />
II. Cosmology versus Transcendentalism<br />
<br />
Cosmology is for the most part thought to be a sub-field of mysticism. Mysticism has numerous definitions, yet it implies something like "the investigation of the crucial idea of reality." Clearly, this is firmly identified with ontological inquiries. There's a cover amongst cosmology and mysticism, which covers questions like "what is presence?" or "how do things exist?"<br />
<br />
In any case, as a dependable guideline we can state that cosmology asks what questions, while transcendentalism asks how addresses.<br />
<br />
Illustration<br />
<br />
The distinction amongst philosophy and power might be less demanding to comprehend in the event that we take a gander at a made-up world. Take a dreamland like J.R.R. Tolkien's Middle-Earth. Its philosophy is not quite the same as our own on the grounds that it has a wide range of things in it like mythical beings, orcs, and dim rulers, that don't exist in our reality. Be that as it may, its mysticism are diverse on the grounds that it has an in a general sense distinctive nature, including enchantment. Center Earth doesn't simply have diverse things in it; the things play by various principles. Cosmology thinks about the things, while power examines the tenets.<br />
<br />
III. Cosmology versus Epistemology<br />
<br />
Cosmology and power both get mistook for epistemology, yet epistemology is less demanding to isolate out. Epistemology is the investigation of learning, of how we comprehend what we know. While cosmology and transcendentalism are about reality, epistemology is about how human cognizance can collaborate with that reality.<br />
<br />
Ontology<span style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Metaphysics<span style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Epistemology<br />
<br />
Do souls exist? Is it accurate to say that they are the kind of things that obey physical laws?<br />
<br />
Is there a God?<br />
<br />
What physical laws would need to be valid with the goal for souls to exist?<br />
<br />
What rules, assuming any, administer God's activities?<br />
<br />
How might we know whether souls exist?<br />
<br />
Would human be able to creatures ever know whether there is a God?<br />
<br />
IV. Well known expressions About Ontology<br />
<br />
Quote 1<br />
<br />
"Past the fiction of reality, there is the truth of the fiction." (Slavoj Zizek)<br />
<br />
Slavoj Zizek is a Slovenian savant, very powerful in certain philosophical circles. (In spite of the fact that different circles reject him altogether; that is theory for you!) His philosophy is difficult to portray in its specifics, however first of all, in the same way as other rationalists, he sees a profound split amongst reality and dialect. Dialect isolates the world into a wide range of various parts and classifications, however those classes are minimal more than helpful fictions. The fictions, however are real– genuine stories about anecdotal classifications. Or, then again, at the end of the day, all that we can say in regards to the truth is anecdotal, however dialect itself is its very own reality.<br />
<br />
Quote 2<br />
<br />
"You don't have a spirit. You are a spirit. You have a body." (Anonymous)<br />
<br />
This quote, regularly mistakenly ascribed to C.S. Lewis, most likely originates from a Quaker magazine in the 1890s. It contends for an exceptionally specific ontological viewpoint: souls exist (plainly an ontological claim), yet they are not the kind of things that you can have or possess (an ontological/mystical claim). Bodies, then again, do have a place with that classification. Be that as it may, the cognizance presently perusing these words is a spirit.<br />
<br />
V. The History and Importance of Ontology<br />
<br />
It could be said, metaphysics is one of the most seasoned types of rationality. A gorilla climbs a tree planning to discover wild figs; some would state that the chimp's conduct proposes the ontological inquiry of whether there are any figs up there. That is not an exceptionally intricate or philosophical kind of cosmology, yet it's a similar general kind of question.<br />
<br />
The Greek thinkers were fairly over the top cosmologists: in their want for finish learning of the world, they had a tendency to order things and contend about what the classifications ought to be and what should have a place with them. For instance, Aristotle made a profoundly powerful contention about the "Step of Nature," which put non-living creatures at the base (for instance, shakes and mists), at that point climbed to plants, at that point creatures, lastly people. This is an ontological hypothesis of the common world, and it hugy affected medieval logic and broad ramifications for Aristotle's ethical hypothesis.<br />
<br />
This kind of philosophy wasn't rehearsed just in the West: Arab, Indian, and Chinese savants likewise examined their general surroundings, reasoned general "standards" of presence, and endeavored to sort things. On account of the worldwide exchange systems of the antiquated and medieval universes, these thinkers all impacted each other; Arabs contended about Aristotle, Romans contended about the Indian Vedic customs, et cetera. These conventions of cosmology were never completely isolate from each other.<br />
<br />
The logical upheaval achieved a profound change in philosophy. A large number of the early researchers understood that the best way to be sure that they were finding realities about nature was to disregard anything (at any rate while doing science) that couldn't be verified, which appears to incorporate extraordinary creatures, divine powers, and souls. Just physical laws, matter and vitality appear to be quantifiable and obey solid laws. A significant number of them additionally had religious convictions, and some of them even did tests concerning the otherworldly, however generally, they found that it was important to accept that exclusive the material world exists so as to do sensible trials and get laws of nature from them.<br />
<br />
This logical cosmology has been so effective as far as understanding nature and controlling it that it has come to overwhelm the way we consider everything, including, for a few people, religion. For instance, there are organizes on the planet that look to "demonstrate" or "refute" the presence of God by explore. Be that as it may, this appears somewhat confounded and surely would have astounded the two devotees and researchers amid the logical transformation. The vast majority of them would have revealed to you that God, on the off chance that he/she/it exists, isn't the kind of thing that can be demonstrated or disproven by try — that God has a place with an alternate ontological class from the normal marvels that we see in science.<br />
<br />
VI. Cosmology in Popular Culture<br />
<br />
Case 1<br />
<br />
In the first Star Wars films, the Force is displayed as a semi-supernatural or mysterious power, a "vitality field made by every living thing" that appears to go past normal law as we probably am aware it. However, in the prequels The Force is introduced in more logical terms; we discover that there are little microorganisms called "midi-chlorians" living in the circulation systems of individuals. This has any kind of effect for the cosmology of the Star Wars universe since it includes another sort of being, and it likewise changes the power in light of the fact that the Star Wars universe now plays by marginally more natural, logical tenets.<br />
<br />
Illustration 2<br />
<br />
Round of Thrones is an uncommon case of a dream story with an exceptionally bizarre philosophy however extremely reasonable transcendentalism. In the story, there are mythical serpents, mammoths, zombies, and a wide range of other phenomenal animals that don't exist in reality. Nonetheless, every one of these animals carry on as per genuinely natural laws, which gives the arrangement a more reasonable feel. At specific focuses, the show incorporates enchantment, yet it is moderately uncommon and dependably appears to be amazing on the grounds that generally the show is hyper-reasonable. Because of the relative nonappearance of enchantment, the show can be said to have an entirely practical power regardless of its dream philosophy.<br />
<br />
VII. Debates<br />
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Cosmology: Should We Even Bother?<br />
<br />
Numerous understudies nod off amid philosophy addresses. Indeed, even numerous expert thinkers don't hone metaphysics. They contend that "being" is an ambiguous thought, perhaps only a curio of dialect, and that there's no reason for breaking down it seriously; the verb "to be" is only a helpful apparatus that people have advanced keeping in mind the end goal to get past their every day lives. It doesn't have a particular importance and in this manner philosophy is looking for something that isn't there. Some additionally contend that it's futile for scholars to attempt and work out what exists in the universe — that rather we should leave that to researchers.<br />
<br />
Obviously this contention meets hardened protection from numerous scholars, which regard metaphysics as focal; recollect the foundationalists from segment 1? They would not concur that metaphysics is inconsequential. In addition, cosmology and mysticism have increased some new vitality recently, because of the confusing ramifications of quantum material science and the investigation of awareness, which are transforming numerous researchers into savants, and the other way around.Al-Mansor Abu saidhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09355698983918954375noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8427095828809940450.post-81979917599883627622015-11-25T00:18:00.000-08:002015-11-25T00:23:33.872-08:00Definition of a TheoryIn quantitative research, some historical precedent exists for viewing a theory as a scientific prediction or explanation (see G. Thomas. 1997. for different ways of conceptualizing theories and how they might constrain thought). For example, the definition of a theory, such as the one<br />
by Kerlinger (1979), is still valid today. A theory is "a set of interrelated constructs (variables), definitions, and propositions that presents a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among variables, with the purpose of explaining natural phenomena" (p. 64).<br />
<br />
In this definition, a theory is an interrelated set of constructs (or variables) formed into propositions, or hypotheses, that specify the relationship among variables (typically in terms of magnitude or direction). The systematic view might be an argument, a discussion, or a rationale, and it helps to explain (or predict) phenomena that occur in the world.<br />
<br />
Labovitz and Hagedorn (1971) add to this definition the idea of a theoretical rationale, which they define as "specifying how and why the variables and relational statements are interrelated" (p. 1 7). Why would an independent variable, X, influence or affect a dependent variable. Y?<br />
The theory would provide the explanation for this expectation or prediction. A discussion about this theory, then, would appear in a section of a proposal titled a theory-base, a theoretical rationale, or a theoretical perspective. I prefer the term theoretical perspective because it has been popularly used as a required section for a proposal for research when one submits an application to present a research paper at the American Educational Research Association conference.<br />
<br />
The metaphor of a rainbow can help to visualize how a theory operates. Assume that the rainbow bridges the independent and dependent variables (or constructs) in a study. This rainbow, then, lies together the variables and provides an overarching explanation for how and why one would expect the independent variable to explain or predict the dependent variable.<br />
<br />
<b>A Form of Theories</b><br />
Theories develop when researchers test a prediction many times. Recall that investigators combine independent, mediating, and dependent variables based on different forms of measures into hypotheses or research questions. These hypotheses or questions provide information about the type of relationship (positive, negative, or unknown) and its magnitude (e.g., high or low). The hypothesis might be written. "The greater the centralization of power in leaders, the greater the disenfranchisement of the followers." When researchers test hypotheses such as this over and over in different settings and with different populations (e.g., the Boy Scouts, a Presbyterian church, the Rotary Club, and a group of high school students), a theory emerges and someone gives it a name (e.g.. a theory of attribution).Thus, theory develops as explanation to advance knowledge in particular fields (G. Thomas, 1997).<br />
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Another aspect of theories is that they vary in their breadth of coverage. Neuman (2000) reviews theories at three levels: micro-level, meso-level, and macro-level. Micro-level theories provide explanations limited to small slices of time, space, or numbers of people, such as GofEman's theory of "face work" that explains how people engage in rituals during face-to-face interactions. Meso-level theories link the micro and macro levels. These are theories of organizations, social movement, or communities, such as Collins's theory of control in organizations. Macro-level theories explain larger aggregates, such as social institutions, cultural systems, and whole societies. Lenski's macro-level<br />
theory of social stratification, for example, explains how the amount of surplus a society produces increases with the development of the society.<br />
<br />
Theories are found in the social science disciplines of psychology, sociology, anthropology, education, and economics, as well as within many subfields. To locate and read about these theories requires searching literature databases (e.g., Psychological Abstracts, Sociological Abstracts) or reviewing guides to the literature about theories (e.g.. see Webb. Beals. & White. 1986).<br />
<br />
<b>A Form of Theories</b><br />
Researchers state their theories in several ways, such as a series of hypotheses, "if ... then" logic statements, or visual models.<br />
<br />
First, some researchers state theories in the form of interconnected hypotheses. For example, Hopkins (1964) conveyed his theory of influence processes as a series of 15 hypotheses (slightly altered to remove all the male-specific pronouns).<br />
<br />
For any member of a small group, some hypotheses are:<br />
<br />
1.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>The higher her rank, the greater her centrality.<br />
2.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>The greater his centrality. the greater his observability.<br />
3.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>The higher her rank, the greater her observability.<br />
4.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>The greater his centrality. the greater his conformity.<br />
5.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>The higher her rank, the greater her conformity.<br />
6.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>The greater his observability, the greater his conformity.<br />
7.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>The greater her conformity, the greater her observability.<br />
<br />Al-Mansor Abu saidhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09355698983918954375noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8427095828809940450.post-21444155116459254752015-11-18T22:38:00.004-08:002015-11-18T22:38:53.013-08:00Problem Statement<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white;">
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</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 19.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: MS;">Where? </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: MS;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 19.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: MS;">When ? </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: MS;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 19.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: MS;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: MS;">In our example..</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: MS;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: MS;">Online
banking is a system that allows individuals to perform banking activities
anywhere, anytime, via the internet</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: MS;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: MS;">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: MS;">Using this
system, customers can make their transections rapidly without having to travel
to the banks and the banks can save a lot of resources</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: MS;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: MS;">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: MS;">ABM bank
have invested a lot of money in making this system available to its customers</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: MS;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="background: white; margin-left: 21.3pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: MS;">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: MS;">However its
usage is not encouraging</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: MS;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: MS;">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: MS;">A study need
to be done to identify the reasons for the low level of usage</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: MS;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Al-Mansor Abu saidhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09355698983918954375noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8427095828809940450.post-52690866839892484782015-11-18T18:46:00.002-08:002015-11-18T19:00:13.072-08:00INTRODUCTION OF SOCIAL RESEARCHSocial research is all around us. Educators, government officials, business managers, human service providers, and health care professionals make frequent use of social research findings. Many people use social research to raise children, reduce crime, improve health, sell products, or just understand life. Daily broadcast news programs, magazines, newspapers, and websites disseminate research results.<br />
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Research findings can affect our lives and public policies. For example, a study that looked at the "summer slide" or decline in children's reading and spelling skills over the summer. The decline is greatest among low-income students who lose about two months of school learning each summer. At a time when many schools are cutting summer programs to save money, the study found that simply giving low-income children access to books at spring fairs and letting them pick books that most interested them reduced the summer reading gap. Low-income children given twelve books and who read them over three summers far outpaced those who did not. They gained as much as if they had attended summer school each summer.<br />
<br />
In simple terms, research is a way to find answers to questions. Professors, professional researchers, practitioners, and students in many fields conduct research studies to answer questions and learn about social life. You probably already have some notion of what social research entails. There are some possible misconceptions. When we asked students in our classes what they think social research entails, they may gave the following answers:<br />
■<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>It is based on facts alone; there is no theory or personal judgment.<br />
■<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Only experts with a Ph.D. degree or college professors read it or do it.<br />
■<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>It means going to the library and finding a lot of magazine articles or books on a topic.<br />
■<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>It is when someone hangs around a group and observes.<br />
■<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>It means conducting a controlled experiment.<br />
■<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Social research is drawing a sample of people and giving them questionnaires to complete.<br />
■<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>It is looking up lots of statistical tables and information from official government reports.<br />
■<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>To do it, one must use computers to create statistics, charts, and graphs.<br />
<br />
The <i><u>first two answers are wrong</u></i>, and the others describe only part of what constitutes social research. It is unwise to confuse one part with the whole.<br />
<br />
We do social research to learn something new about the social world; or to carefully document our guesses, hunches, theories, or beliefs about it; or to better understand how the social world works. In research we combine theories and ideas with facts in a careful, systematic way and this requires creativity. To do a study, we must organize, plan carefully, and select appropriate techniques to address a specific question.<br />
<br />
We want to treat the people in a study in ethical and moral ways. Once we complete a study, it is<br />
time to communicate the results to others in a complete and accurate way. In the process of social research we combine principles, outlooks, and ideas (i.e., methodology) with a collection of specific practices, techniques, and strategies (i.e., a method of inquiry) to produce knowledge. It is an exciting process of discovery, but it requires persistence, personal integrity, tolerance for ambiguity, interaction with others, and pride in doing quality work.<br />
<br />
By reading the research text book will not transform you into an expert researcher, but it can teach you to be a better consumer of research results, help you to understand how the research enterprise works, and prepare you to conduct your own small-scale studies. Hope, after reading and studying the basic social research, you will be aware of what research can and cannot do, and why always conducting research properly is important.<br />
<br />Al-Mansor Abu saidhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09355698983918954375noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8427095828809940450.post-23031001997469138162015-11-18T18:20:00.001-08:002015-11-18T18:40:46.395-08:00Glossary of Research<b><u>Abstract </u></b>A term with two meanings in literature reviews: a short summary of a scholarly journal article that usually appears at its beginning, and a reference tool for locating scholarly journal articles.<br />
<br />
<b><u>Acceptable incompetent</u></b> When a field researcher pretends to be less skilled or knowledgeable in order to learn more about a field site. (11)<br />
<br />
<b><u>Accretion measures</u></b> Nonreactive measures of the residue of the activity of people or what they leave<br />
behind. (9)<br />
<br />
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh950TybjR1n9omtoOuoChrVWhmfJiyBB1Rk18T1trCa1EoU77Z8et_i5LuFOE369qBTyiWJtPNTZikiLCZWdpJAEj_qqCZCHTYdHatrMeZUOIpSLK6GPptgc8_AIZUS5XN_VavCM-ALdXa/s1600/download.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh950TybjR1n9omtoOuoChrVWhmfJiyBB1Rk18T1trCa1EoU77Z8et_i5LuFOE369qBTyiWJtPNTZikiLCZWdpJAEj_qqCZCHTYdHatrMeZUOIpSLK6GPptgc8_AIZUS5XN_VavCM-ALdXa/s1600/download.jpg" /></a><b><u>Action research</u></b> A type of applied social research in which a researcher treats knowledge as a form of power and abolishes the division between creating knowledge and using knowledge to engage in<br />
political action. (1)<br />
<br />
<b><u>Alternative hypothesis</u></b> A hypothesis paired with a null hypothesis stating that the independent variable has an effect on a dependent variable. (4)<br />
<br />
<b><u>Analytic domain</u></b> In domain analysis, a type of domain a researcher develops using categories or terms he or she developed to understand a social setting. (13)<br />
<br />
<b><u>Analytic memo's</u></b> The written notes a qualitative researcher takes during data collection and after-<br />
ward to develop concepts, themes, or preliminary generalizations. (11)<br />
<br />
<b><u>Anonymity </u></b>Research participants remain anonymous or nameless. (3)<br />
<br />
<b><u>Appearance of interest</u></b> A technique in field research in which researchers maintain relations in a field site by pretending to be interested and excited by the activities of those studied, even though they are actually uninterested or very bored. (11)<br />
<br />
<b><u>Applied social research</u></b> Research that attempts to solve a concrete problem or address a specific policy question and that has a direct, practical application. (1)<br />
<br />
<b><u>Association </u></b>A co-occurrence of two events, factors, characteristics, or activities, such that when one<br />
happens, the other is likely to occur as well. Many statistics measure this. (2)<br />
<br />
<b><u>Assumption </u></b>Parts of social theories that are not tested, but act as starting points or basic beliefs about the world. They are necessary to make other theoretical statements and to build social theory. (2)<br />
<br />
<b><u>Attitude of strangeness</u></b> A technique in field research in which researchers study a field site by mentally adjusting to "see" it for the first time or as an outsider. (11)<br />
<br />
<b><u>Attributes </u></b>The categories or levels of a variable. (4)<br />
<br />
<u><b>Axial coding</b></u> A second coding of qualitative data after open coding. The researcher organizes the codes, develops links among them, and discovers key analytic categories. (13)<br />
<br />
<b><u>Back translation</u></b> A technique in comparative research for checking lexicon equivalence.<br />
A researcher translates spoken or written text from an original language into a second language,<br />
then translates the same text in the second language back into the original language, then com-<br />
pares the two original language texts. (12)<br />
<br />
<b><u>Bar chart</u></b> A display of quantitative data for one variable in the form of rectangles where longer rectangles indicate more cases in a variable category. Usually, it is used with discrete data and there is a small space between rectangles. They can have a horizontal or vertical orientation. Also called bar graphs. (10)<br />
<br />
<b><u>Basic social research</u></b> Research designed to advance fundamental knowledge about the social world. (1)<br />
<br />
<b><u>Bivariate statistics</u></b> Statistical measures that involve two variables only. (10)<br />
<br />
(Neuman, 2012)Al-Mansor Abu saidhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09355698983918954375noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8427095828809940450.post-18063520086372232452011-11-15T06:26:00.001-08:002011-11-15T07:21:29.605-08:00CONCEPT OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Introduction</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Based
on Kamus Perdana (1997), culture means civilization, progress covering common
sense way of life, ways of thinking and behavior, customs, beliefs, norms and
values shared by the members of the group. Culture depends on man's ability
to learn and spread knowledge of this culture to the next generations.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Robbins
(1996) defines organizational culture as a common perception that adopted by
the members of the organization. Organizational culture includes the practices,
beliefs, assumptions, principles, the legends and norms that affect how a
person is thinking, making decisions and carrying out tasks within an
organization.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Mohammed
& Sagir (1998) defines organizational culture is a pattern of thoughts,
feelings and reactions that exist in the organization or sub-its sector. The
term refers to a system of shared meaning which refers to the values, beliefs,
traditions, philosophy, heroes and regulations that are shared by members of
the organization. Sharing these values to determine what can be seen by the
managers and how they respond to their world. When facing problems,
organizational culture can limit what managers do by suggesting the right way
or that by conceptualising, defining, analyzing and solving problems.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">There
are four key components of organizational culture. The first component is the
values that are basic beliefs that define the success of employees in the
organization. The second component is the hero, individuals who embody the
values of the organization and serves as an example to other employees. The
third component is the pomp and circumstance (practice) adopted by the company
to show the workers what to do or what needs to be addressed. The fourth
component is the cultural network is an informal communication within the
organization.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Currently,
there are no fixed steps to measure the organizational culture, but initial
studies suggest that culture can be studied to assess an organization based on
ten (10) features below: -</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">1)
Individual Initiative-level responsibility, freedom and independence which is
owned by an individual.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">2) Risk
Tolerance - The level at which employees are encouraged to be aggressive,
innovative and courageous in the face of risk.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">3)
Direction - The level at which organizations develop performance objectives and
expectations clear.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">4)
Integration - The level at which the units of the organization are encouraged
to manage in a way coordination.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">5) Management
support - The level of communication which supplied managers, assistants and
support to their subordinates.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">6)
Control - The law and order and the number of supervisors who are used to
monitor and control the behavior of employees.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">7)
Identity - The extent to which the members recognized the organization as a
group and not known for work or their respective professional fields.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">8)
Reward System - The level at which rewards such as salary increases and
promotions are based on the employee's performance in services, prefer to work
and so on.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">9)
Conflict tolerance - The extent to which employees are encouraged to give
constructive feedback openly. 10) Communication - The level of an organization
where communication is limited to the formal hierarchy of power.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Characteristics
mentioned above are stable and remain at all times as an individual personality
that is not easily changed from time to time.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Ansari
(1990) have shown that organizational culture consists of eight (8) dimensions;</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">1)
Structure - It means the employee's perception of the limitations of the
situation and level of behavioral constraints in the organization.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">2)
Rewards - emphasis on the reward or penalty organizations to control employee
behavior.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">3)
Responsibility - The level of organization allows employees to take on trust
and responsibility.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">4)
Satisfaction - Refers to the satisfaction of emotional needs that are allowed
within the organization.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">5)
Support - The level of organizational support of every member of the
organization.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">6)
Standard - Refers to the kind of standards we set for the performance standards
set by the organization to employees. 7) Conflict management - Refers to the
strategies used by management to resolve conflicts. 8) Identity - Refers to the
level of employees in the organization have the feeling with the organization.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Jensen
et al. (2004) states that organizational culture is a system where an
organization's members have values and beliefs together to determine their
behavior in the organization. Organizational culture determines the way an
organization's members to act on matters.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Denison</span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> (1990) defines organizational culture as the
underlying beliefs, values and assumptions held by members of an organization
as well as exemplary practices and behaviors and reinforce them.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Hansen
& Wernerfelt (1989) states that organizational culture can influence how an
individual goal setting and professional goals, tasks and manage resources to
achieve its objectives. Organizational culture affect how a person think in a
state of conscious and subconscious, make decisions and ultimately affect as
one can see, feel and act.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">For
Deshpande & Farley (1999) defines organizational culture as a set of
values, beliefs, polar-polar behavior of the organization's core identity and
help shape the behavior of employees.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">According
to Christiansen (2000), culture is part of a set of unwritten rules. A company
has rules but no companies have rules covering every situation a person will
be. Sometimes a person will use their consideration. How they use is subject to
the consideration of their faith in companies that hold them. What is required
by the company are of the general statement of goals and principles provided by
the stories and examples of Gupta & Govindarajan (2000) present a framework
in which organizational culture has six components: organizational structure,
information systems, people, reward systems, leadership and processes. Each
component has dimensions respectively.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">O'Reilly
et al. (1991) has developed the organizational culture profile consisting of
three components. The first component is to handle the work is divided into
three-dimensional detail, stability and innovation. The second component is the
organizational structure is divided into two dimensions and team-oriented
relationship "interpersonal". The third component is the individual
action is divided into two dimensions of outcome and aggressiveness.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Empirical Studies Related
with Organization Culture and Performance </span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Boon,
Arumugam, Vellapan, Yin & Wai (2006) has been conducting research /
quantitative analysis of the relationship between organizational culture of
employee job satisfaction in the health sector in Malaysia. The study was conducted
on workers in four (4) health organizations in the state of Perak. The findings
showed workers perceptions of organizational culture variables are significant
and positive relationship of job satisfaction of employees. This study proves
the high level of awareness of employees (5) dimensions of organizational
culture support, emphasis on rewards, innovation-oriented performance,
stability and communication, the more positive reaction to employee
satisfaction. The study also showed support was the most dominant dimension of
(5) dimensions of organizational culture and has a strong relationship with
employee satisfaction. This study also supports previous findings by Lund (2003), Gray,
Densten and Sarros (2003).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Mohammad
& Arif (2000) have investigated the relationship between organizational
culture and organizational work among Malaysia. The study was conducted
in seven (7) private companies in Malaysia. The study has shown there
is a relationship between organizational culture and commitment to work with
the involvement of the organization. Relationship is positive and strong. These
findings are also consistent with previous studies in which the role of
organizational culture is to promote a positive work.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">The
findings also show that there are several dimensions of organizational culture
that encourages efficiency and productivity of the workers in which in the end
it allows organizations to achieve competitive advantage competitive. Thus the
organizational culture should be monitored continuously so that the beliefs and
values shared by the members of the organization continues to evolve and
ultimately management practices can facilitate a conducive work culture.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Rashid,
Sambasivan & Johari (2002) has conducted studies on the influence of
corporate culture and organizational commitment to the financial performance of
Malaysian companies. The study has shown there is a connection between the
corporate culture of commitment to the organization. Relationship is
significant and positive impact on employee job satisfaction. The results of
this study is very important implications for human resource development and
motivate employees. This study also proves the corporate culture and
organizational commitment have an impact and influence the company's financial
performance. This means that the type of corporate culture and organizational
commitment can be an important factor in determining the performance or
success.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Lok
& Crawford (2003) has conducted studies on the influence of organizational
culture and leadership style on job satisfaction and organizational commitment
of managers in various industries in Hong Kong and Australia. The study has shown
managers from Australia has
a "Mean Scores" higher variable organizational culture of innovation
and support for job satisfaction and organizational commitment than managers
from Hong Kong. For both samples, variables
and innovation, support and thoughtful leadership style, a sense of having a
positive influence on job satisfaction and organizational commitment.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Bititci,
Mendibil, Nudurupati, Garengo & Turner (2006) have investigated the dynamic
relationship between performance evaluation, leadership style and
organizational culture to provide a better understanding of the relationship between
these three variables. The study was conducted in a "case study" of
the five case study in which performance measurement system implemented in the
action research program. The study has shown leadership styles and
organizational culture are interdependent during the period under review the
performance appraisal system. Leadership styles have evolved as the maturity of
the performance appraisal system and the organizational culture to grow. The
success of implementing and using performance appraisal system through changes
in culture have shown leadership style "participative" and
"Consultative". Use proper performance appraisal system to encourage
the emergence of a culture of achievement. The findings of the five (5) cases
have the authority of leadership is necessary at the beginning and it will
change in line with cultural change.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Hui
& Idris (2009) have investigated the relationship of absorption capacity,
or "absorptive Capacity" of innovation and organizational culture as
a moderating influence, or "moderating effect" in which multinational
companies with MSC status. The findings have shown the development and
dissemination of knowledge is very important to maintain the ability to
innovate. this study proves the dissemination of knowledge and application of
knowledge is significant in illustrating the ability of innovative companies.
The study also found that the influence of "absorptive Capacity" on
the ability to innovate and was moderated by the organizational culture.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Xavier
(2007) has conducted research on cultural factors and economic factors in
determining entrepreneurship in a diverse and developing country like Malaysia. The
findings showed no significant correlation relationship between economic
factors and cultural factors on entrepreneurial tendencies. This study proves
for the Malays no correlation relationship between entrepreneurial tendency of
economic factors and no significant correlation relationship between cultural
factors with entrepreneurial tendencies. For the Chinese there is no
significant correlation relationships between entrepreneurial tendency of
economic factors, but there was a significant correlation relationship between
cultural factors with entrepreneurial tendencies. For the Indians there is no
significant correlation relationship of these two factors with entrepreneurial
tendencies.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Ibrahim,
Sejini & Qassimi (2006) has conducted research on the relationship between
self-assessment of work performance and job satisfaction among public sector
workers in the United Arab
Emirates. The study showed that there was no
significant relationship between self-assessment of performance with overall
job satisfaction. Similarly, the "moderating variables" such as
gender, marital status, period of service and position also appears to be no
significant relationship. However, there is no significant relationship between
self-assessment of performance, citizenship, place of salary and benefits,
career development and the most important environment / working conditions
(work environment).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Sanders
(2007) have carried out a study on the use of personality traits (personality
characteristics) that "The Big Five" to the selection of a good
police officer and to anticipate the performance of police officers. "The
Big Five" are 1) The nature extrovert 2) The nature of emotional 3) The
nature of the agree and abide 4) The nature of openness 5) The nature of the
moral consciousness. The study showed that age and attitude is
"preditors" in anticipation of better police performance when
compared with the "traits" personality. Age of police officers found
to have non-linear relationship to job performance. While the work attitude of
the "cynical" is negative in the "ratings" performance.</span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Organizational
Culture: Polis Diraja Malaysia
(PDRM)</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Polis
Diraja Malaysia (PDRM) is a combination of the Police Force which used to exist
in isolation and has a history, tradition and culture respectively. Police
history began in this country at March 25, 1807, when the Police Force was
established in Penang when the British to
enforce the Charter of Justice (Charter of Justice). As an enforcement
institution with a history of 202 years, would the police have enough influence
organizational culture and significant impact on its members. According to
Mohammed & Sagir (1998) organizational culture can be understood as a way
of thinking, feeling, perception, values, norms, activities, reactions and
objectives of the organizations that exist in the organization. It is a unique
program for a mental health organization which reflects the personality of the
organization. Brown (1998) states that culture is a pattern of beliefs, values
and ways of learning with current experiences with the organization and it
will be shown clearly in the determination of the actions and behavior of its
members. According to Alauddin (2004) the practice and appreciation of the
excellent work culture in this organization will be able to produce human
workers who carry out their duties with full commitment, determination,
loyalty, cooperation and integration. Through excellent organizational culture
earlier, negative practices will be avoided, while the positive behavior can be
improved to enable the organization achieve its goals on track. Positive work
culture that drives the organization toward success namely as organizational
culture. Organizational culture can be defined as a form of practice, conduct
and action is agreed and understood by all people working with the
organization. Culture is like fertilizer that nourishes the organization to produce
fruit that can be used by the community.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">On this
day, the task of policing the kompleks3 and challenging, even more so in the
near future. The rapid development in our country it is feeling and all the
precise focus towards establishing Malaysia as a country fully
developed by Vision 2020. Era of a globalized world without borders and
development of information technology (ICT) has resulted in rapidly a new
paradigm shift in the police force to improve the professionalism of the
officers and members in order to fulfill the expectations of society.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Organizational
Culture in PDRM</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Rapid
development has led policing tasks more challenging and difficult. Conduction
challenge is increasing dramatically Index Crime Rate and complex types of
crime, the threat of drug abuse is increasing due to the emergence of new
synthetic drugs, the threat of racism and militant religious extremism, the
threat of cyber terrorism and illegal immigrants. Pressure from human rights
groups such as SUHAKAM, SUARAM, shouted, Bar Counsel and several other NGOs
have demanded that police actions are according to the tenets of law and the
Constitution.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Police
as a law enforcement agency's most important in this country, based on duties
and responsibilities as a "crime control" and "due process of
law" is a measure of the quality of professionalism and performance in law
enforcement. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Royal
Commission to Enhance Operation and Management of Police was formed by the Seri
Paduka Baginda Yang di-Pertuan Agong on February 4, 2004 under the Commission
of Inquiry Act 1950. Terms of Reference of the Commission is quite broad,
ranging from the role and responsibilities of the Royal Malaysia Police to the
organization, distribution and human resource development, human rights,
procedures, operations and improvements and modernization of the police service
in general. The findings from the inquiry, the Royal Commission's survey and
feedback from the public are as follows: -</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">A total
of 926 complaints and 316 proposals received by the Commission from members of
the public as of March 2005. Twenty-two (22) the proposals received from
officers and policemen. Complaints received many policing issues of concern to
the public. One third of complaints (312 aduan@33.7%) people in connection with
the case of the absence of follow-up on reports made by the police. A total of
191 complaints (20.6%) related to the abuse of power and almost half the
complaints (186 complaints or 20.1%) of the inefficiency and lack of
accountability. A total of 119 complaints (12.8%) related to poor public
relations, 98 complaints (10.6%) of police corruption, and 20 complaints (2%)
of deaths in police custody. (See Table 1).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Most of
the suggestions from the public are related to human resources and logistics of
the police. Another proposal is the matter of corruption, community policing,
human rights aspects of policing and police body outside the browser. (See
Table 1.2). Two surveys were conducted, one on the public perception of crime
and police, and one among the police. Among the findings obtained in the first
questionnaire survey (involving 575 public respondents) showed that most
respondents ie 17.6% had been victims of crime in 2004. Somewhat among many
respondents that 9 out of 10 "fear" and "extremely concerned"
would be a crime. 4.7% of respondents "not satisfied" and "very
dissatisfied" with security and a similar percentage of 43% "not
satisfied" and "very dissatisfied" with the police. In relation
to the survey of police is quite disturbing findings is that the awareness of
corruption is very less among police personnel at all levels.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Table 1</span></b><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Feedback Received by the Royal Commission to
Enhance the Operations and Management<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>of
PDRM<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>by Category<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(As of March 2005)</span></b><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"></span></div>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; width: 590px;">
<tbody>
<tr style="height: 26.4pt; mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0;">
<td rowspan="2" style="border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 26.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 31.5pt;" width="42">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">BIL</span></div>
</td>
<td rowspan="2" style="border-left: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 26.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 180.7pt;" width="241">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">CATEGORY</span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="3" style="border-left: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 26.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 167.8pt;" width="224">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">NUMBER OF FEEDBACK</span></div>
</td>
<td rowspan="2" style="border-left: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 26.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 62.8pt;" width="84">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">TOTAL</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 26.4pt; mso-yfti-irow: 1;">
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 51.5pt;" width="69">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">LETTER</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 56.15pt;" width="75">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">WEBSITE</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 60.15pt;" width="80">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Inquiry<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>PUBLIC</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 26.4pt; mso-yfti-irow: 2;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 26.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 31.5pt;" width="42">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">1. </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 180.7pt;" width="241">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">No Follow Up</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 51.5pt;" width="69">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">119</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 56.15pt;" width="75">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">20</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 60.15pt;" width="80">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">173</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 62.8pt;" width="84">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">312 ( 33.7%)</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 26.4pt; mso-yfti-irow: 3;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 26.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 31.5pt;" width="42">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">2. </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 180.7pt;" width="241">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Abuse of Power</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 51.5pt;" width="69">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">103</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 56.15pt;" width="75">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">18</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 60.15pt;" width="80">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">70</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 62.8pt;" width="84">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">191 (20.6%)</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 26.5pt; mso-yfti-irow: 4;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 26.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 31.5pt;" width="42">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">3. </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 180.7pt;" width="241">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Not Efficient / No
Accountability</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 51.5pt;" width="69">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">75</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 56.15pt;" width="75">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">16</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 60.15pt;" width="80">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">95</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 62.8pt;" width="84">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">186 ( 20.1%)</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 39.4pt; mso-yfti-irow: 5;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 39.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 31.5pt;" width="42">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">4. </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 39.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 180.7pt;" width="241">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Poor Public
Relations</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 39.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 51.5pt;" width="69">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">54</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 39.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 56.15pt;" width="75">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">12</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 39.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 60.15pt;" width="80">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">53</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 39.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 62.8pt;" width="84">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">119 ( 12.8%)</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 26.4pt; mso-yfti-irow: 6;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 26.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 31.5pt;" width="42">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">5. </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 180.7pt;" width="241">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Corruption</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 51.5pt;" width="69">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">33</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 56.15pt;" width="75">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">20</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 60.15pt;" width="80">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">44</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 62.8pt;" width="84">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">98 (10.6%)</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 26.4pt; mso-yfti-irow: 7;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 26.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 31.5pt;" width="42">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">6. </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 180.7pt;" width="241">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Deaths in Detention</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 51.5pt;" width="69">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">12</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 56.15pt;" width="75">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">1</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 60.15pt;" width="80">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">7</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 62.8pt;" width="84">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">20 ( 2%)</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 37.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 8;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 37.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 31.5pt;" width="42">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">7. </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 37.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 180.7pt;" width="241">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Proposal</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 37.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 51.5pt;" width="69">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">72</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 37.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 56.15pt;" width="75">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">135</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 37.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 60.15pt;" width="80">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">109</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 37.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 62.8pt;" width="84">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">316</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 35.9pt; mso-yfti-irow: 9; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td colspan="2" style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 35.9pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 212.2pt;" width="283">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">TOTAL </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 35.9pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 51.5pt;" width="69">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">468 </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 35.9pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 56.15pt;" width="75">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">223 </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 35.9pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 60.15pt;" width="80">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>551 </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 35.9pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 62.8pt;" width="84">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">1242 </span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Total
index crimes for 2006, 2007 and 2008 are respectively 196.780 cases 211.645
209.582 cases and cases. We can see a sharp increase in index crimes from 2006
to 2007 was 12.802 cases or 6.5%, while the increase in crime index for 2007 to
2008 stood at 2063 cases, or 1%. The increase in index crimes drastically this
course is the "indicator" that shows the level of police performance
is unsatisfactory. (See Table 2).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">TABLE 2</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">TOTAL INCREASE IN
CRIMINAL CASES INDEX OF<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>2006,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>2007 AND 2008</span></div>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; width: 546px;">
<tbody>
<tr style="height: 27.0pt; mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0;">
<td style="border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 27.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 105.65pt;" valign="top" width="141">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Crime Index (cases)</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 27.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 69.5pt;" valign="top" width="93">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">2006</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 27.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 75.75pt;" valign="top" width="101">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">2007</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 27.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 69.5pt;" valign="top" width="93">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">2008</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 27.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 89.0pt;" valign="top" width="119">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Total (cases)</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 26.4pt; mso-yfti-irow: 1;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 26.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 105.65pt;" valign="top" width="141">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Crimes of Violence</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 69.5pt;" valign="top" width="93">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">31,408</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 75.75pt;" valign="top" width="101">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">35,159</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 69.5pt;" valign="top" width="93">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">37,817</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 89.0pt;" valign="top" width="119">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">104,384</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 26.4pt; mso-yfti-irow: 2;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 26.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 105.65pt;" valign="top" width="141">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Property Crime </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 69.5pt;" valign="top" width="93">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">165,372</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 75.75pt;" valign="top" width="101">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">174,423</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 69.5pt;" valign="top" width="93">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">173,828</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 89.0pt;" valign="top" width="119">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">513,623</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 26.65pt; mso-yfti-irow: 3; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 26.65pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 105.65pt;" valign="top" width="141">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Total Crime Index </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.65pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 69.5pt;" valign="top" width="93">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">196,780</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.65pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 75.75pt;" valign="top" width="101">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">209,582</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.65pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 69.5pt;" valign="top" width="93">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">211,645</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.65pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 89.0pt;" valign="top" width="119">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">618,007</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Public
Complaints Bureau of Statistics showed the PDRM is the government agency that
received the highest complaint for three consecutive years ie 2006, 2007 and
2008 respectively are 194 complaints, 206 complaints and 468 complaints. The
increase in the number of complaints and the police are an agency that received
the highest complaint would reflect the level of police performance is not
satisfactory. (Please see Table 3).</span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">TABLE 3</span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">10 AGENCY OF THE MINISTRY OF RECEIVING HIGHEST
COMPLAINT<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>FOR THE YEAR 2006, 2007 AND
2008</span></div>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; mso-padding-alt: 0in 0in 0in 0in; mso-table-layout-alt: fixed;">
<tbody>
<tr style="height: 27.15pt; mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0;">
<td style="border-bottom: solid white 1.0pt; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 27.15pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid white .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 31.5pt;" width="42">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">NO </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid white 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: solid black 1.0pt; height: 27.15pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: white; mso-border-left-alt: black; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-right-alt: windowtext; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: black; mso-border-width-alt: .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 211.8pt;" width="282">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">AGENSI </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="3" style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 27.15pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 139.95pt;" width="187">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">TOTAL COMPLAINTS RECEIVED (YEAR)</span></div>
</td>
<td rowspan="2" style="border-left: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 27.15pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 54.15pt;" width="72">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">TOTAL</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 26.25pt; mso-yfti-irow: 1;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 26.25pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid white .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid white .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 31.5pt;" width="42">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.25pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid white .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid white .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 211.8pt;" width="282">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.25pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 40.95pt;" width="55">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">2006</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.25pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.25pt;" width="60">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">2007</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.25pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 53.75pt;" width="72">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">2008</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 26.5pt; mso-yfti-irow: 2;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 26.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 31.5pt;" width="42">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">1. </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 211.8pt;" width="282">
<div class="Default">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";">POLIS DIRAJA MALAYSIA </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 40.95pt;" width="55">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">194</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.25pt;" width="60">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">206</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 53.75pt;" width="72">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">468</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 54.15pt;" width="72">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">868</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 39.4pt; mso-yfti-irow: 3;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 39.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 31.5pt;" width="42">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">2. </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 39.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 211.8pt;" width="282">
<div class="Default">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";">JABATAN
PENDAFTARAN NEGARA</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 39.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 40.95pt;" width="55">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">83</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 39.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.25pt;" width="60">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">76</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 39.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 53.75pt;" width="72">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">228</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 39.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 54.15pt;" width="72">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">387</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 26.4pt; mso-yfti-irow: 4;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 26.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 31.5pt;" width="42">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">3. </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 211.8pt;" width="282">
<div class="Default">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";">JABATAN KERJA
RAYA </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 40.95pt;" width="55">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">159</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.25pt;" width="60">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">126</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 53.75pt;" width="72">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">224</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 54.15pt;" width="72">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">509</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 26.4pt; mso-yfti-irow: 5;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 26.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 31.5pt;" width="42">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">4. </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 211.8pt;" width="282">
<div class="Default">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";">JABATAN
IMIGRESEN</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 40.95pt;" width="55">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">83</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.25pt;" width="60">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">17</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 53.75pt;" width="72">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">213</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 54.15pt;" width="72">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">313</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 39.5pt; mso-yfti-irow: 6;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 39.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 31.5pt;" width="42">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">5. </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 39.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 211.8pt;" width="282">
<div class="Default">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";">JABATAN
PENDIDIKAN NEGERI </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 39.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 40.95pt;" width="55">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">164</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 39.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.25pt;" width="60">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">97</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 39.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 53.75pt;" width="72">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">191</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 39.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 54.15pt;" width="72">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">452</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 52.5pt; mso-yfti-irow: 7;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 52.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 31.5pt;" width="42">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">6. </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 52.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 211.8pt;" width="282">
<div class="Default">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";">LEMBAGA
PELESENAN KEDENRERAAN PERDAGANGAN</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 52.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 40.95pt;" width="55">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">57</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 52.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.25pt;" width="60">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">23</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 52.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 53.75pt;" width="72">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">190</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 52.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 54.15pt;" width="72">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">270</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 26.4pt; mso-yfti-irow: 8;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 26.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 31.5pt;" width="42">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">7. </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 211.8pt;" width="282">
<div class="Default">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";">TENAGA NASIONAL
BERHAD </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 40.95pt;" width="55">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">183</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.25pt;" width="60">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">114</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 53.75pt;" width="72">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">181</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 54.15pt;" width="72">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">478</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 39.5pt; mso-yfti-irow: 9;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 39.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 31.5pt;" width="42">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">8. </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 39.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 211.8pt;" width="282">
<div class="Default">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";">DEWAN BANDARAYA
KUALA LUMPUR </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 39.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 40.95pt;" width="55">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">108</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 39.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.25pt;" width="60">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">85</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 39.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 53.75pt;" width="72">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">168</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 39.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 54.15pt;" width="72">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">361</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 39.4pt; mso-yfti-irow: 10;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 39.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 31.5pt;" width="42">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">9. </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 39.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 211.8pt;" width="282">
<div class="Default">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";">JABATAN PENGANGKUTAN
JALAN</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 39.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 40.95pt;" width="55">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">58</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 39.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.25pt;" width="60">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">40</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 39.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 53.75pt;" width="72">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">168</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 39.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 54.15pt;" width="72">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">266</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 39.4pt; mso-yfti-irow: 11;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 39.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 31.5pt;" width="42">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">10. </span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 39.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 211.8pt;" width="282">
<div class="Default">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";">BAHAGIAN
PENGUATKUASA KPDNHEP</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 39.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 40.95pt;" width="55">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">35</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 39.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.25pt;" width="60">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">39</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 39.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 53.75pt;" width="72">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">164</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 39.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 54.15pt;" width="72">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">238</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 26.65pt; mso-yfti-irow: 12; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; height: 26.65pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 31.5pt;" width="42">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.65pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 211.8pt;" width="282">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">TOTAL<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>COMPLAINTS</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.65pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 40.95pt;" width="55">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">1124</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.65pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 45.25pt;" width="60">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">823</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.65pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 53.75pt;" width="72">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">2195</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 26.65pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 54.15pt;" width="72">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">4142</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">There
are various factors that cause deterioration of the performance of police work
or police work performance unsatisfactory. Among them is the vision, mission
and strategic objectives of the police, the police leadership factors, the core
strategy of the police, motivation, encouragement and rewards of the police
force, the core values and ethics of the police, police discipline and
internal control and organizational culture. In this research into the
organizational culture focus or concentration to undertake a study of the quantitative
analysis of whether there is a relationship between organizational culture of
performance at the PDRM.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">The
dominant organizational culture that support, emphasis on rewards, innovation,
performance and stability-oriented and communication will continue to be the
main guidelines and principles of all police officers and members to achieve
excellent performance and meet the expectations of society.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Organizational
culture is relevant to managers / police leadership as provide guidelines on
what can be done and what can not be done. All perceptions, decisions and their
views are based on organizational culture is practiced. So, whether consciously
or unconsciously, to manage a manager / police leadership will always tend to
adopt a culture of their organization.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Organizational
culture will influence and impact on management functions such as planning,
organizing, directing and controlling. The functions of planning,
organizational culture will influence whether the pattern of planning long-term
or short term, the extent to which risks will be taken and how any planning
done.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">In
organizing an organization, organizational culture determines how much power to
be revealed to the officers and members of his subordinates, the required level
of freedom given in the work of employees and the extent to which policies and
procedures will be enforced.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Organizational
culture affects leadership style manager / police leadership in motivational
techniques should be used, the appropriate leadership style and level of authority
that can be implemented. In terms of control is external and internal
enforcement decisions, decisions that should be emphasized control method or
control the budget decisions are all influenced by the culture of an
organization.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">In
other words, the organizational culture greatly influenced the course of police
management for organizational culture is not only the direction of its own
police force but is a core value that influence / motivate police work
performance.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Conclusion</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">The
main goal of this article is to see the relationship of organizational culture
dimensions on job performance among officers and members of the PDRM. This
literature study is also described several dimensions of organizational culture
that can influence the performance of the dimensions of support, emphasis on
rewards and innovation. It is hoped that this literature review will be used as
a guide to improve services, quality of work and performance of officers and
members of the PDRM. It is important to ensure that the services of the PDRM
are proud to be a national platform on the organizational culture of excellence
and then to the formation of a team, the customer first, preferred job
performance will be a priority of the PDRM.</span></div>Al-Mansor Abu saidhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09355698983918954375noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8427095828809940450.post-3617640806239339992011-11-12T04:56:00.001-08:002011-11-12T05:03:19.752-08:00Structural Equation Modelling (SEM)<span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Structural Equation Modelling (SEM)"></span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) merupakan salah satu analisis multivariate yang dapat menganalisis hubungan variabel secara kompleks.">Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) merupakan salah satu analisis multivariate yang boleh menganalisis hubungan variabel secara kompleks.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Analisis ini pada umumnya digunakan untuk penelitian-penelitian yang menggunakan banyak variabel.">Analisis ini pada umumnya digunakan untuk kajian-kajian yang menggunakan banyak variabel.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Analisis ini pada umumnya digunakan untuk penelitian-penelitian yang menggunakan banyak variabel."><br /></span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Teknik analisis data menggunakan Structural Equation Modelling (SEM), dilakukan untuk menjelaskan secara menyeluruh hubungan antar variabel yang ada dalam penelitian.">Teknik analisis data menggunakan Structural Equation Modelling (SEM), dilakukan untuk menjelaskan secara menyeluruh hubungan antara variabel yang ada dalam kajian.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="SEM digunakan bukan untuk merancang suatu teori, tetapi lebih ditujukan untuk memeriksa dan membenarkan suatu model.">SEM digunakan bukan untuk merancang suatu teori, tetapi lebih bertujuan untuk menyemak dan membenarkan suatu model.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Oleh karena itu, syarat utama menggunakan SEM adalah membangun suatu model hipotesis yang terdiri dari model struktural dan model pengukuran dalam bentuk diagram jalur yang berdasarkan justifikasi teori.">Oleh kerana itu, syarat utama menggunakan SEM adalah membina suatu model hipotesis yang terdiri daripada model struktur dan model pengukuran dalam bentuk diagram jalur yang berdasarkan justifikasi teori.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="SEM adalah merupakan sekumpulan teknik-teknik statistik yang memungkinkan pengujian sebuah rangkaian hubungan secara simultan.">SEM adalah merupakan sekumpulan teknik-teknik statistik yang membolehkan ujian sebuah rangkaian hubungan secara serentak.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Hubungan itu dibangun antara satu atau beberapa variabel independen.">Hubungan itu dibina antara satu atau lebih pembolehubah bebas.</span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Dikemukakan oleh Ferdinand (2002), bahwa Model Persamaan Struktural merupakan jawaban yang layak untuk kombinasi antara analisis faktor dan analisis regresi berganda karena pada saat peneliti mengidentifikasi dimensi-dimensi sebuah konsep atau konstruk, pada saat yang sama peneliti juga ingin mengukur pengaruh atau derajat antar faktor">Dikemukakan oleh Ferdinand (2002), bahawa Model Persamaan Struktural merupakan jawapan yang layak untuk kombinasi antara analisis faktor dan analisis regresi berganda kerana pada saat penyelidik mengenalpasti dimensi-dimensi sebuah konsep atau konstruk, pada masa yang sama penyelidik juga ingin mengukur pengaruh atau darjat antara faktor<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="yang telah diidentifikasikan dimensi-dimensinya itu.">yang telah dikenalpasti dimensi-dimensinya itu.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Dengan demikian SEM merupakan kombinasi antara analisis faktor dan analisis regresi berganda.">Dengan demikian SEM merupakan gabungan antara analisis faktor dan analisis regresi berganda.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Dengan demikian SEM merupakan kombinasi antara analisis faktor dan analisis regresi berganda."><br /></span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Hal ini sesuai yang dikemukakan oleh Ferdinand (2000) bahwa SEM sangat tepat digunakan untuk merancang penelitian manajemen serta menjawab pertanyaan yang bersifat regresif dan dimensional dalam waktu yang bersamaan.">Hal ini sesuai yang dikemukakan oleh Ferdinand (2000) bahawa SEM sangat tepat digunakan untuk merancang kajian pengurusan serta menjawab soalan yang bersifat regresif dan dimensional dalam masa yang sama.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Regresif artinya pengujian hubungan antar konstruk, sedang dimensional berarti pengujian dimensi-dimensi yang terdapat dalam konstruk.">Regresif ertinya ujian hubungan antara konstruk, sedang dimensional bererti ujian dimensi-dimensi yang terdapat dalam konstruk.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Demikian juga Solimun (2002) mengemukakan bahwa di dalam SEM peneliti dapat melakukan tiga kegiatan sekaligus, yaitu pemeriksaan validitas dan reliabilitas instrumen (setara dengan analisis faktor konfirmatori), pengujian model hubungan antar variabel laten (setara dengan analisis path), dan mendapatkan model yang bermanfaat">Demikian juga Solimun (2002) mengemukakan bahawa di dalam SEM penyelidik boleh melakukan tiga aktiviti sekaligus, iaitu pemeriksaan kesahihan dan kebolehpercayaan instrumen (setara dengan analisis faktor konfirmatori), ujian model hubungan antara variabel laten (setara dengan analisis path), dan mendapatkan model yang bermanfaat<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="untuk prediksi (setara dengan model struktural atau analisis regresi).">untuk keputusan (sama dengan model struktur atau analisis regresi).</span><br />
<span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="untuk prediksi (setara dengan model struktural atau analisis regresi)."><br /></span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Pada teknik analisis SEM, programnya bisa menggunakan program AMOS atau program LISREL 8.30 yang bisa menampilkan diagram path yang berupa: 1) Model Lengkap (Basic Model), 2) Model Pengukuran (X-Model atau Y-Model), dan 3) Model Struktural">Pada teknik analisis SEM, programnya boleh menggunakan program AMOS atau program LISREL 8.30 yang boleh memaparkan diagram laluan yang berupa: 1) Model Lengkap (Basic Model), 2) Model Pengukuran (X-Model atau Y-Model), dan 3) Model Struktural<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="(Structural Model).">(Structural Model).<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Di samping itu, koefisien dalam diagram path tersebut bisa berupa:">Di samping itu, pekali dalam carta path tersebut boleh berupa:</span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="1) diagram hipotetik (Conseptual Diagram), 2) Hasil Estimasi berdasarkan data mentah (Estimates), 3) Koefisien Path (Standardize Solution), 4) T-ratio (T-values), 5) Modification Indices dan 6) Expected Changes.">1) diagram hipotetik (Conseptual Diagram), 2) Keputusan Estimasi berdasarkan data mentah (Estimates), 3) Pekali Path (Standardize Solution), 4) T-ratio (T-values), 5) Modification Indices dan 6) Expected Changes.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Sedang kalau program AMOS dapat menampilkan 1) Diagram Path Lengkap (Overall Model atau Basic Model) dengan 2) Koefisien berupa hasil estimasi berdasarkan data mentah (Unstandardize Estimate) dan 3) Koefisien Path (Standardize Estimate).">Sedang kalau program AMOS boleh memaparkan 1) Diagram Path Lengkap (Overall Model atau Basic Model) dan 2) Pekali berupa hasil anggaran berdasarkan data mentah (Unstandardize Estimate) dan 3) Pekali Path (Standardize Estimate).</span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Untuk membuat pemodelan yang lengkap ada beberapa langkah yang perlu dilakukan, yaitu: 1) pengembangan model berbasis konsep dan teori, 2) pengembangan diagram alur (path diagram), 3) konversi diagram alur ke dalam persamaan struktural, 4) memilih matriks input dan estimasi">Untuk membuat pemodelan yang lengkap ada beberapa langkah yang perlu dilakukan, iaitu: 1) pembangunan model berasaskan konsep dan teori, 2) pembangunan diagram alur (path diagram), 3) penukaran diagram alur ke dalam persamaan struktural, 4) memilih matriks input dan anggaran<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="model, 5) menilai masalah identifikasi, 6) evaluasi model, serta 7) interpretasi dan modifikasi model (Ferdinand, 2002; Solimun, 2004).">model, 5) menilai masalah pengenalan, 6) penilaian model, dan 7) tafsiran dan pengubahsuaian model (Ferdinand, 2002; Solimun, 2004).</span><br />
<br />
<span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="KONSEP UMUM MODEL PERSAMAAN STRUKTURAL"><b>KONSEP UMUM MODEL PERSAMAAN STRUKTURAL</b></span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Oleh : Hidayat || echo Diposting : 14 Maret 2011"></span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Dalam penelitian ilmu sosial atau ilmu perilaku (Social dan Behavioral Sciences) sering kali peneliti melakukan kegiatan penelitian untuk mengukur setiap karakteristik subjek atau satuan pengamatan melibatkan lebih satu variabel (variate)."> </span><br />
<span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Dalam penelitian ilmu sosial atau ilmu perilaku (Social dan Behavioral Sciences) sering kali peneliti melakukan kegiatan penelitian untuk mengukur setiap karakteristik subjek atau satuan pengamatan melibatkan lebih satu variabel (variate).">Dalam kajian ilmu sosial atau ilmu perilaku (Social dan Behavioral Sciences) sering kali penyelidik melakukan kegiatan kajian untuk mengukur setiap ciri-ciri subjek atau unit pemerhatian melibatkan lebih satu variabel (variate).<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Dalam konteks pengukuran seperti ini, analisis yang digunakan adalah statistik multivariat atau variat banyak.">Dalam konteks pengukuran seperti ini, analisis yang digunakan adalah statistik multivariat atau variat banyak.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Dalam konteks pengukuran seperti ini, analisis yang digunakan adalah statistik multivariat atau variat banyak."><br /></span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Tidak seperti ilmu eksakta atau teknik, dalam ilmu sosial atau perilaku untuk aktivitas pengukuran tidak dapat dilakukan secara langsung, tetapi melalui indikator-indikator yang merupakan refleksi atau manifest dari konsep atau konstruk (construct) yang ingin diukur.">Tidak seperti ilmu eksakta atau teknik, dalam sains sosial atau perilaku untuk aktiviti pengukuran tidak boleh dilakukan secara langsung, tetapi melalui penunjuk-penunjuk yang merupakan refleksi atau manifest dari konsep atau konstruk (construct) yang ingin diukur.</span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Misalnya, konsep “kecemasan”, “kecerdasan”, “motivasi”, “prestasi” dan lain sebagainya.">Misalnya, konsep "kecemasan", "kecerdasan", "motivasi", "prestasi" dan lain-lain.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Konsep tersebut merupakan faktor yang tidak dapat diamati secara langsung atau bersifat latent (unobservable variable).">Konsep tersebut merupakan faktor yang tidak dapat diamati secara langsung atau bersifat latent (unobservable variable).<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Sedangkan indikator-indikator dari konsep tersebut merupakan fenomena yang dapat diamati atau dapat diukur secara langsung (observable variable).">Sedangkan penunjuk-penunjuk dari konsep tersebut merupakan fenomena yang dapat diamati atau boleh diukur secara langsung (observable variable).</span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Sejauhmana bahwa indikator-indikator tersebut benar-benar mencerminkan suatu variabel latent akan membawa kepada masalah kualitas pengukuran, yaitu reliabilitas dan validitas.">Sejauhmana bahawa penunjuk-penunjuk tersebut benar-benar mencerminkan suatu pembolehubah latent akan membawa kepada masalah high pengukuran, iaitu kebolehpercayaan dan kesahihan.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Sejauhmana bahwa indikator-indikator tersebut benar-benar mencerminkan suatu variabel latent akan membawa kepada masalah kualitas pengukuran, yaitu reliabilitas dan validitas."><br /></span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Umumnya teknik analisis statistik hanya mengolah variabel-variabel indikatornya saja tanpa melibatkan variabel latennya, dan juga jarang dalam pengolahannya sekaligus melibatkan kekeliruan pengukuran variabel.">Umumnya teknik analisis statistik hanya memproses variabel-variabel penunjuk sahaja tanpa melibatkan variabel latennya, dan juga jarang dalam pengolahannya sekaligus melibatkan kekeliruan pengukuran pembolehubah.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Umumnya kekeliruran pengukuran hanya diperhatikan pada saat uji coba dengan menghitung reliabilitas dan validitasnya.">Umumnya kekeliruran pengukuran hanya diperhatikan pada saat uji cuba dengan menghitung </span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Sejauhmana bahwa indikator-indikator tersebut benar-benar mencerminkan suatu variabel latent akan membawa kepada masalah kualitas pengukuran, yaitu reliabilitas dan validitas.">kebolehpercayaan</span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Umumnya kekeliruran pengukuran hanya diperhatikan pada saat uji coba dengan menghitung reliabilitas dan validitasnya."> dan </span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Dalam pengolahan selanjutnya, masalah kekeliruan pengukuran sering dilupakan saja atau diasumsikan bahwa kekeliruan pengukuran “tidak ada”, padahal selama alat ukur tersebut tidak memiliki tingkat reliabilitas dan validitas yang “sempurna” maka besarnya kekeliruan pengukuran akan berpengaruh kepada hasil analisisnya.">kesahan</span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Umumnya kekeliruran pengukuran hanya diperhatikan pada saat uji coba dengan menghitung reliabilitas dan validitasnya.">nya.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Dalam pengolahan selanjutnya, masalah kekeliruan pengukuran sering dilupakan saja atau diasumsikan bahwa kekeliruan pengukuran “tidak ada”, padahal selama alat ukur tersebut tidak memiliki tingkat reliabilitas dan validitas yang “sempurna” maka besarnya kekeliruan pengukuran akan berpengaruh kepada hasil analisisnya.">Dalam pengolahan selanjutnya, masalah kekeliruan pengukuran sering dilupakan saja atau diandaikan bahawa kekeliruan pengukuran "tidak ada", padahal selama alat ukur tersebut tidak mempunyai peringkat </span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Sejauhmana bahwa indikator-indikator tersebut benar-benar mencerminkan suatu variabel latent akan membawa kepada masalah kualitas pengukuran, yaitu reliabilitas dan validitas.">kebolehpercayaan</span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Dalam pengolahan selanjutnya, masalah kekeliruan pengukuran sering dilupakan saja atau diasumsikan bahwa kekeliruan pengukuran “tidak ada”, padahal selama alat ukur tersebut tidak memiliki tingkat reliabilitas dan validitas yang “sempurna” maka besarnya kekeliruan pengukuran akan berpengaruh kepada hasil analisisnya."> dan kesahan yang "sempurna" maka besarnya kekeliruan pengukuran akan berpengaruh kepada hasil analisisnya.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Kita semua tahu bahwa dalam ilmu sosial dan perilaku tidak memiliki suatu alat ukur yang benar-benar baku, tidak seperti teknik dan sains yang memiliki alat ukur yang baku di mana-mana dan sepengetahuan penulis tidak ada lembaga semacam metrologi yang bertugas mengkalibrasi alat ukur ilmu-">Kita semua tahu bahawa dalam ilmu sosial dan perilaku tidak mempunyai suatu alat ukur yang benar-benar baku, tidak seperti teknik dan sains yang mempunyai alat ukur yang baku di mana-mana dan pengetahuan penulis tidak ada badan-badan seperti metrologi yang bertugas mengkalibrasi alat ukur ilmu-<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="ilmu sosial.">ilmu sosial.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Dengan demikian kita perlu suatu analisis statistik yang sekaligus melibatkan kekeliruan pengukuran.">Dengan demikian kita perlu suatu analisis statistik yang sekaligus melibatkan kekeliruan dalam pengukuran.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Dengan demikian kita perlu suatu analisis statistik yang sekaligus melibatkan kekeliruan pengukuran."><br /></span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Seperti sudah dijelaskan bahwa dalam ilmu sosial untuk mengukur suatu konstruk umumnya secara tidak langsung, yaitu melalui indikator-indikatornya.">Seperti sudah dijelaskan bahawa dalam ilmu sosial untuk mengukur suatu konstruk umumnya secara tidak langsung, iaitu melalui penunjuk-penunjuk.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Selama ini variabel-variabel indikator inilah yang diproses untuk menjelaskan bagaimana hubungan antara konstruk yang satu dengan konstruk lainnya, tetapi hubungan tersebut tetap samar-samar, artinya hubungan antara indikator-indikator dan konsep tersebut tidak secara eksplisit dinyatakan dalam suatu persamaan.">Selama ini variabel-variabel penunjuk inilah yang diproses untuk menjelaskan bagaimana hubungan antara konstruk yang satu dengan konstruk yang lain, tetapi hubungan tersebut tetap samar-samar, ertinya hubungan antara penunjuk-penunjuk dan konsep tersebut tidak secara jelas dinyatakan dalam suatu persamaan.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Dengan demikian perlu suatu analisis statistik yang secara simultan melibatkan variabel indikator dan variabel laten.">Dengan demikian perlu suatu analisis statistik yang secara serentak melibatkan variabel penunjuk dan variabel laten.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Dengan demikian perlu suatu analisis statistik yang secara simultan melibatkan variabel indikator dan variabel laten."><br /></span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Suatu teknik statistik yang menganalisis variabel indikator, variabel laten, dan kekeliruan pengukurannya adalah pemodelan persamaan struktural (structural equation model, SEM).">Suatu teknik statistik yang menganalisis variabel penunjuk, variabel laten, dan kekeliruan pengukurannya adalah pemodelan persamaan struktural (structural equation model, SEM).</span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Dengan SEM kita dapat menganalisis bagaimana hubungan antara variabel indikator dengan variabel latennya yang dikenal sebagai persamaan pengukuran (measurement equation), hubungan antara variabel laten yang satu dengan variabel laten yang lain dikenal sebagai persamaan struktural (structural equation) yang secara bersama-sama melibatkan kekeliruan pengukuran">Dengan SEM kita dapat menganalisis bagaimana hubungan antara variabel penunjuk dengan variabel latennya yang dikenali sebagai persamaan pengukuran (measurement equation), hubungan antara variabel laten yang satu dengan variabel laten yang lain dikenali sebagai persamaan struktural (structural equation) yang secara bersama-sama melibatkan kekeliruan pengukuran<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title=".">.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Selain itu, model persamaan struktural dapat menganalisis hubungan dua arah (reciprocal) yang sering terjadi pada ilmu sosial.">Selain itu, model persamaan struktural boleh menganalisis hubungan dua hala (reciprocal) yang sering terjadi pada ilmu sosial.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Dalam SEM dikenal juga dengan variabel laten eksogen (independent latent variable) dan variabel laten endogen (dependent latent variable).">Dalam SEM dikenali juga dengan variabel laten eksogen (independent latent variable) dan pembolehubah laten endogen (dependent latent variable).</span><br />
<span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Dalam SEM dikenal juga dengan variabel laten eksogen (independent latent variable) dan variabel laten endogen (dependent latent variable)."><br /></span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Model persamaan struktural termasuk teknik statistik multivariat dipendensi yang digunakan dalam berbagai bidang penelitian seperti biologi, ekonometrika, pendidikan, pemasaran, medis, dan penelitian bidang lainnya.">Model persamaan struktural termasuklah teknik statistik multivariat dipendensi yang digunakan dalam pelbagai bidang penyelidikan seperti biologi, ekonometrika, pendidikan, pemasaran, perubatan, dan penyelidikan bidang lain.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Istilah model persamaan struktural dikenal juga dengan nama LISREL (LInear Structural RELationships) adalah paket program statistik untuk SEM, yang pertama kali diperkenalkan oleh Karl Jöreskog pada tahun 1970 dalam suatu pertemuan ilmiah.">Istilah model persamaan struktural dikenali juga dengan nama LISREL (Linear Structural Relationships) adalah pakej program statistik untuk SEM, yang pertama kali diperkenalkan oleh Karl Jöreskog pada tahun 1970 dalam suatu pertemuan ilmiah.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Istilah lain untuk SEM sering kali disebut juga analisis faktor konfirmatori (confirmatory factor analysis), model struktur kovarians (covariance structure models) dan model variabel laten (latent variable modeling).">Istilah lain untuk SEM sering kali disebut juga analisis faktor konfirmatori (confirmatory factor analysis), model struktur kovarians (covariance structure models) dan model pembolehubah laten (latent variable modeling).</span><br />
<span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Istilah lain untuk SEM sering kali disebut juga analisis faktor konfirmatori (confirmatory factor analysis), model struktur kovarians (covariance structure models) dan model variabel laten (latent variable modeling)."><br /></span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Pengolahan data dengan SEM tidak dapat dilakukan secara manual.">Pengolahan data dengan SEM tidak boleh dilakukan secara manual.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Umumnya prosedur pengolahan data dilakukan secara iteratif.">Umumnya prosedur pemprosesan data dilakukan secara iteratif.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Sekarang ini telah tersedia beberapa program komputer kaitannya dengan pengolahan data menggunakan SEM, misalnya LISREL (Jöreskog & Sörbom, 1993a, 1993b, 1993c, 1999), EQS5 (Bentler, 1995 ), SEPATH (Steiger), dan AMOS (Arbuckle ), CALIS (">Sekarang ini telah terdapat beberapa program komputer kaitannya dengan pemprosesan data dengan menggunakan SEM, contohnya LISREL (Jöreskog & Sörbom, 1993a, 1993b, 1993c, 1999), EQS5 (Bentler, 1995), sepath (Steiger), dan AMOS (Arbuckle), Calis (<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="SAS Institute, 1989), LISCOMP (Muthén), MPLUS (Muthén & Muthén, 1998), RAMONA (Browne & Mels, 1994), dan Mx: Statistical Modeling (Neale).">SAS Institute, 1989), LISCOMP (Muthén), MPLUS (Muthén & Muthén, 1998), RAMONA (Browne & Mels, 1994), dan Mx: Statistical Modeling (Neale).</span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Sekarang ini, penggunaan SEM dalam penelitian sosial semakin banyak.">Sekarang ini, penggunaan SEM dalam kajian sosial semakin banyak.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Ada tiga alasan mengapa SEM banyak digunakan dalam penelitian (Kelloway, 1998), yaitu:">Ada tiga sebab mengapa SEM banyak digunakan dalam kajian (Kelloway, 1998), iaitu:<br /><br /><br /><br /><br /> </span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Penelitian sosial umumnya menggunakan pengukuran-pengukuran untuk menjabarkan konstruk (construct).">Penelitian sosial umumnya menggunakan pengukuran-pengukuran untuk menjabarkan konstruk (construct).<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Hampir semua penelitian ilmu sosial tertarik dalam pengukuran dan teknik pengukuran.">Hampir semua kajian ilmu sosial tertarik dalam pengukuran dan teknik pengukuran.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Salah satu bentuk dari SEM berurusan secara langsung dapat menjawab pertanyaan sejauh mana pengukuran yang dilakukan dapat merefleksikan konstruk yang diukur.">Salah satu bentuk dari SEM berurusan secara langsung dapat menjawab soalan sejauh mana ukuran yang dilakukan dapat mencerminkan konstruk yang diukur.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Singkatnya, pengolahan data dengan SEM sekaligus dapat mengevaluasi kualitas pengukuran, yaitu keandalan dan validitas suatu alat ukur.">Ringkasnya, pemprosesan data dengan SEM sekaligus dapat menilai kualiti pengukuran, iaitu kebolehpercayaan dan kesahihan sesuatu alat ukur.<br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /> </span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Para peneliti sosial sangat tertarik terhadap prediksi.">Para penyelidik sosial sangat tertarik terhadap ramalan.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Dalam melakukan prediksi tidak hanya melibatkan model dua variabel, tapi dapat melibatkan model yang lebih “rumit” berupa struktur hubungan antara beberapa variabel penelitian.">Dalam melakukan ramalan tidak hanya melibatkan model dua variabel, tapi dapat melibatkan model yang lebih "rumit" berupa struktur hubungan antara beberapa pembolehubah kajian.<br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /> </span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="SEM dapat melayani sekaligus suatu analisis kualitas pengukuran dan prediksi.">SEM dapat melayani sekaligus suatu analisis high pengukuran dan ramalan.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Khususnya, dalam “model-model variabel latent”, model ini merupakan suatu model yang fleksibel dan sangat ampuh secara simultan memeriksa kualitas pengukuran dan hubungan prediktif antar konstruk.">Khususnya, dalam "model-model pembolehubah latent", model ini merupakan suatu model yang fleksibel dan sangat ampuh secara serentak menyemak high pengukuran dan hubungan ramalan antara konstruk.</span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="1.2 Jenis-Jenis Model Persamaan Struktural">1.2 Jenis-Jenis Model Persamaan Struktural</span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Terdapat beberapa jenis umum model-model persamaan struktural (Raykov & Marcoulides, 2000):">Terdapat beberapa jenis am model-model persamaan struktural (Raykov & Marcoulides, 2000):<br /><br /><br /><br /><br /> </span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Model-model analisis jalur (path analysis models).">Model-model analisis laluan (path analysis models).<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Dalam model-model analisis jalur biasanya analisis hanya melibatkan variabel-variabel indikator tanpa melakukan analisis terhadap konstruk atau konsep yang ingin diukur.">Dalam model-model analisis laluan biasanya analisis hanya melibatkan pembolehubah-pembolehubah penunjuk tanpa melakukan analisis terhadap konstruk atau konsep yang ingin diukur.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Model seperti ini untuk pertama kali diperkenalkan oleh Sewell Wright (1921).">Model seperti ini untuk pertama kali diperkenalkan oleh Sewell Wright (1921).<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Umumnya, teknik analisisnya digunakan analisis regresi multipel di mana salah satu asumsinya adalah tidak ada kekeliruan pengukuran (measurement error) dalam variabel bebas.">Umumnya, teknik analisisnya digunakan analisis regresi berganda di mana salah satu asumsinya adalah tidak ada kekeliruan pengukuran (measurement error) dalam variabel bebas.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Dalam analisis jalur tersebut tidak mempertimbangkan kekeliruan pengukuran.">Dalam analisis laluan tersebut tidak mahal kekeliruan dalam pengukuran.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Misalnya, diagram jalurnya dapat dilihat pada Gambar 1.1.">Misalnya, diagram jalurnya dapat dilihat pada Gambar 1.1.<br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /> </span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Model-model analisis faktor konfirmatif (confirmatory factor analysis models).">Model-model analisis faktor konfirmatif (confirmatory factor analysis models).<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Umumnya, dalam analisis ini bertujuan untuk mengevaluasi pola-pola antar hubungan antara beberapa konstruk.">Umumnya, dalam analisis ini bertujuan untuk menilai pola-pola antara hubungan antara beberapa konstruk.</span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Setiap konstruk dibangun oleh indikator-indikator.">Setiap konstruk dibina oleh penunjuk-penunjuk.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Model analisis faktor konfirmatori biasanya tidak diasumsikan arah hubungan antara konstruk, tetapi hanya adanya hubungan korelatif antara konstruk.">Model analisis faktor konfirmatori biasanya tidak diandaikan arah hubungan antara konstruk, tetapi hanya adanya hubungan perbandingan, antara konstruk.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Contoh kasus model ini dinyatakan pada Gambar 1.2.">Contoh kes model ini dinyatakan pada Gambar 1.2.<br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /> </span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Model-model persamaan struktural (structural equation models).">Model-model persamaan struktural (structural equation models).<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Dalam model-model seperti ini diasumsikan secara spesifik arah hubungan antara konstruk.">Dalam model-model seperti ini diandaikan secara khusus arah hubungan antara konstruk.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Model-model ini dapat digunakan untuk menguji apakah teori-teori yang diusulkan (proposed theories) sesuai dengan model-model empirisnya.">Model-model ini boleh digunakan untuk menguji apakah teori-teori yang dicadangkan (proposed theories) sesuai dengan model-model empirisnya.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="background-color: #ebeff9; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Gambar 1.3 merupakan contoh diagram jalur bagi model ini.">Gambar 1.3 merupakan contoh diagram jalur bagi model ini.<br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /> </span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Model-model perubahan laten (latent change models).">Model-model perubahan laten (latent change models).<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Yang dimaksud dengan model-model perubahan laten adalah memungkinkan untuk melakukan studi pola perubahan karena waktu.">Apa yang dimaksudkan dengan model-model perubahan laten adalah memungkinkan untuk melakukan kajian pola perubahan kerana masa.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Model-model ini terutama berfokus untuk memantau pola perubahan, seperti pola pertumbuhan (growth), penurunan (decline).">Model-model ini terutama menumpukan untuk memantau pola perubahan, seperti pola pertumbuhan (growth), penurunan (decline).<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Model seperti ini termasuk longitudinal.">Model seperti ini termasuk longitudinal.</span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="Contoh diagram jalur untuk model ini dapat dilihat pada Gambar 1.4.">Contoh diagram jalur untuk model ini dapat dilihat pada Gambar 1.4.</span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;" title="model, 5) menilai masalah identifikasi, 6) evaluasi model, serta 7) interpretasi dan modifikasi model (Ferdinand, 2002; Solimun, 2004)."> </span>Al-Mansor Abu saidhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09355698983918954375noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8427095828809940450.post-46347425626763555792011-11-02T22:34:00.001-07:002011-11-02T22:34:50.673-07:00GUIDELINE FOR CHAPTER 1 and 2<br />
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US">Chapter 1 Introduction</span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US">1.1<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US">Introduction</span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">What you want to explain in chapter one,</span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US">1.2<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US">Background of the Research and Research Question</span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><span lang="EN-US">Historical development of the
concept under study. </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><span lang="EN-US">How the issue emerge</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><span lang="EN-US">The problems with the issue
under study</span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US">1.2 Problem Statement</span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Paragraph 1 – What is the problem? Why it is so important that
research must be done?</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Paragraph 2 – What is
existing knowledge on the problem? What are the focuses of studies in the area?</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -72.0pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-US">Paragraph 3 – Where is
the research gap, i.e. the difference between knowledge available and knowledge
needed?</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Paragraph 4 – What is
proposed? What the research report want to do to address the research gap?</span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US">1.3 Research Question</span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">“Propose a research question here”</span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US">1.4 Research Objectives</span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">In point form, what does this research aims to achieve:</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Write in this way:</span></div>
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<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l7 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span lang="EN-US">To
examine….</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l7 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span lang="EN-US">To
understand…</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l7 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span lang="EN-US">To study…</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l7 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span lang="EN-US">To
propose…</span></li>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-US">(Note: Bear in mind that the research objectives must be achieved by
the end of the study)</span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US">1.5 Significance and Justifications
for the Study</span></b></div>
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<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span lang="EN-US">Why this
study is so important?</span></li>
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<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span lang="EN-US">How this
study can fill up the knowledge gap</span></li>
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<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span lang="EN-US">How this
study can benefit the society through recommendations to government, NGOs,
businesses, community etc?</span></li>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US">1.6 Research Scope</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-US">Briefly explain the focus of this study and how the data is expected
to be collected.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18.0pt; mso-list: l2 level2 lfo5; tab-stops: list 18.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US">1.7<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US">Definition of the Key Terms</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-US">Provide in the following format:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-insideh: .5pt solid windowtext; mso-border-insidev: .5pt solid windowtext; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 480;">
<tbody>
<tr style="mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0;">
<td style="border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 147.6pt;" valign="top" width="197"><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US">Key Terms</span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 147.6pt;" valign="top" width="197"><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US">Definition</span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 147.6pt;" valign="top" width="197"><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US">Source</span></b></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 1;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 147.6pt;" valign="top" width="197"><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-US">The important term used in the study. Normally are the variables
used for the study</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 147.6pt;" valign="top" width="197"><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-US">How the key term is defined. The definition must suit to the
context of the study i.e. the available definition has to be modified so it
can address the context of the study</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 147.6pt;" valign="top" width="197"><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-US">In text citation format from where the definition is available.</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 2;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 147.6pt;" valign="top" width="197"><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 147.6pt;" valign="top" width="197"><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 147.6pt;" valign="top" width="197"><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 3; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 147.6pt;" valign="top" width="197"><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 147.6pt;" valign="top" width="197"><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 147.6pt;" valign="top" width="197"><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18.0pt; mso-list: l2 level2 lfo5; tab-stops: list 18.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US">1.8<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US">Organizational of Research</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-US">How the research report is organized. The content for each chapter
needs to be mentioned.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-US">The chapter 1 in this study…</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-US">Writing Literature Review</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-US">The structure of literature review</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<ul style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span lang="EN-US">An
introduction which explains how your review is organised</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span lang="EN-US">Headings
and subheadings that provide a map to show the various stands of your
argument</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span lang="EN-US">A summary
where the key arguments are reiterated in a concise way</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-US">Organisational pattern for the literature review</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<ul style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l9 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span lang="EN-US">Zooming</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l9 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span lang="EN-US">Finding
intersections</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l9 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span lang="EN-US">Patch working</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l9 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span lang="EN-US">Funneling</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-US">Example of a literature review structure</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36.0pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-US">1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><span lang="EN-US">Introduction</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-list: l8 level2 lfo8; tab-stops: list 45.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -9.0pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><span lang="EN-US">Provide an overall idea of the
studies (what are the factors and how they are linked in brief)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-list: l8 level2 lfo8; tab-stops: list 45.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -9.0pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><span lang="EN-US">Explain the structure of the
literature review</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36.0pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-US">2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><span lang="EN-US">The theory (if any)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo9; tab-stops: list 45.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -9.0pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><span lang="EN-US">Explain the development of the
theory (who is the first to discuss the theory and how the theory develop)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo9; tab-stops: list 45.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -9.0pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><span lang="EN-US">What is the theory all about</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo9; tab-stops: list 45.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -9.0pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><span lang="EN-US">How the theory is related to
the study</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36.0pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-US">3.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><span lang="EN-US">The main concept under study</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo10; tab-stops: list 45.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -9.0pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><span lang="EN-US">Explain the dependent variable
of the study:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-list: l4 level2 lfo10; tab-stops: list 72.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-US">-<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><span lang="EN-US">Review the definition of the concept</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-list: l4 level2 lfo10; tab-stops: list 72.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-US">-<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><span lang="EN-US">Explain the development of the
concept</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-list: l4 level2 lfo10; tab-stops: list 72.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-US">-<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><span lang="EN-US">Explain how the concept is
important in the context of the study </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36.0pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-US">4.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><span lang="EN-US">The other predicting concepts
under study</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-list: l4 level3 lfo10; tab-stops: list 45.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -9.0pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><span lang="EN-US">Explain each of the independent
variables in the study separately</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-list: l4 level2 lfo10; tab-stops: list 72.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-US">-<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><span lang="EN-US">Review the definition of the
concept</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-list: l4 level2 lfo10; tab-stops: list 72.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-US">-<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><span lang="EN-US">Explain the development of the
concept</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-list: l4 level2 lfo10; tab-stops: list 72.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-US">-<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><span lang="EN-US">Explain how the concept is
linked to the dependent variable of the study</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36.0pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-US">5.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><span lang="EN-US">The findings from previous
studies</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-list: l4 level3 lfo10; tab-stops: list 45.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -9.0pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><span lang="EN-US">Any of the previous study
examines the same framework – what is the findings</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-list: l4 level3 lfo10; tab-stops: list 45.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -9.0pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><span lang="EN-US">How the findings of previous study
can support all the independent variables are important in predicting the
dependent variable.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36.0pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-US">6.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><span lang="EN-US">Conclusion</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo11; tab-stops: list 45.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -9.0pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><span lang="EN-US">Critically evaluate the
existing research and the findings of previous studies</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo11; tab-stops: list 45.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -9.0pt; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><span lang="EN-US">Explain how the review help to
construct the research framework of the study</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="EN-US">Important points to note:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<ul style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l5 level1 lfo12; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span lang="EN-US">Organize
the write up according to point – not author.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l5 level1 lfo12; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span lang="EN-US">The write
up must be organize according to a proper flow – clear and easy to read</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l5 level1 lfo12; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span lang="EN-US">Proper
citation must be made</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l5 level1 lfo12; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"><span lang="EN-US">Literature
review is a documentation of previous study – not your own idea or point
of view</span></li>
</ul>Al-Mansor Abu saidhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09355698983918954375noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8427095828809940450.post-67063835830530312902011-07-29T09:11:00.001-07:002011-07-29T09:11:48.545-07:00Empirical Analysis of Job Stress on Job Satisfaction among University Teachers<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:compatibility> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> <w:usefelayout/> </w:Compatibility> <w:browserlevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0in; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]--><p class="CM9" style="line-height:16.0pt"><b><span style="font-size:10.0pt">Abstract </span></b><span style="font-size:10.0pt"></span></p> <p class="CM9" style="margin-right:5.0pt;line-height:12.0pt"><span style="font-size:10.0pt">This research investigates the relationship between job stress and job satisfaction among University teachers in Pakistan. Data were collected from 400 respondents from cross sectional method from all four provinces by using simple random technique. The determinants of job stress that have been examined under this study include, management role, relationship with others, workload pressure, homework interface, role ambiguity, and performance pressure. The sample consists of public universities in Pakistan. The results show there is a significant relationship between four of the constructs tested. The results also show that there is significant negative relationship between job stress and job satisfaction. It was revealed that 70 percent of the faulty members are not satisfied from their salaries. Job stress has negative impact on their health. </span></p> <p class="CM9" style="line-height:12.0pt"><b><span style="font-size:10.0pt">Keywords: </span></b><span style="font-size:10.0pt">Job stress, Academician, Public sector Universities </span></p> <p class="CM9" style="line-height:12.0pt"><b><span style="font-size:10.0pt">1. Introduction </span></b><span style="font-size:10.0pt"></span></p> <p class="CM9" style="line-height:12.0pt"><span style="font-size:10.0pt">Job life is one of the important parts of our daily lives which cause a great deal of stress. Due to the competitive nature of the job environment most of the people in the world are spending their time for job related work purposes resulting ignore the stressor those are influencing their work and life. Usually people are more worry about their outcome of their work that can even affect the way they treat other people and how they communicate with their peers and customers. For example, people with a higher percentage of occupational stress may not be satisfied with their job and therefore they will not feel happy working in the organization. They may feel frustrated or “burned out” when they are having problems with peers or customers. This may leave a negative impact to the organization itself. Therefore, it is very important for employer and employees to realize the stress and the stressor that cause all the negative effects. The number of university in Pakistan has increase tremendously for the past few years. Due to the increasing number of universities in Pakistan, university academic teachers may face more problems in their job as the managements are facing competitive pressure from other universities. Almost universities are now setting new goal to compete with other universities as well as the academic teachers are involving with the ultimate goal. This may causes the university academic teachers to face plenty of stress and therefore affect their satisfaction and even their physical or mental health. </span></p> <p class="CM9" style="line-height:12.0pt"><span style="font-size:10.0pt">The aim of this study is to identify the stressors issues that will influence the academic teachers’ job satisfaction. We selected teaching because educators have been consistently identified as a group experiencing high stress at work (Sigler and Wilson, 1988). </span></p> <p class="CM9" style="line-height:12.0pt"><b><span style="font-size:10.0pt">2. Literature Review </span></b><span style="font-size:10.0pt"></span></p> <p class="CM9" style="line-height:12.0pt"><span style="font-size:10.0pt">Numerous studies found that fob stress influences the employees’ job satisfaction and their overall performance in their work. Because most of the organizations now are more demanding for the better job outcomes. In fact, modern times have been called as the “age of anxiety and stress” (Coleman, 1976).The stress itself will be affected by number of stressors. Nevertheless, Beehr and Newman (1978) had defined stress as a situation which will force a person to deviate from normal functioning due to the change (i.e. disrupt or enhance) in his/her psychological and/or physiological condition, such that the person is forced to deviate from normal functioning. From the definition that has been identified by researchers, we can conclude that it is truly important for an individual to recognize the stresses that are facing by them in their career. Some demographic factor may influence the way a university academic teachers act in their workplace. </span></p> <p class="CM9" style="line-height:12.0pt"><span style="font-size:10.0pt">Management role of an organization is one of the aspects that affect work-related stress among workers (Alexandros-Stamatios et. al., 2003).Workers in an organization can face occupational stress through the role stress that the management gave. Role stress means anything about an organizational role that produces adverse consequences for the individual (Kahn and Quinn, 1970). Management will have their own role that stands as their related. Role related are concerned with how individuals perceive the expectations other have of them and includes role ambiguity and role conflict (Alexandros-Stamatios et. al., 2003). Family and work are inter-related and interdependent to the extent that experiences in one area affect the quality of life in the other (Sarantakos, 1996). Home-work interface can be known as the overlap between work and home; the two way relationship involves the source of stress at work affecting home life and vice versa affects of seafaring on home life, demands from work at home, no support from home, absent of stability in home life. It asks about whether home problems are brought to work and work has a negative impact on home life (Alexandros-Stamatios G.A et al., 2003). For example, it questions whether the workers have to take work home, or inability to forget about work when the individual is at home. Home-work interface is important for the workers to reduce the level of work-related stress. According to Lasky (1995) demands associated with family and finances can be a major source of ‘extra-organizational’ stress that can complicate, or even precipitate, work-place stress. Russo & Vitaliano (1995) argued that the occurrence of stressors in the workplace either immediately following a period of chronic stress at home, or in conjunction with other major life stressors, is likely to have a marked impact on outcome. Several studies have highlighted the deleterious consequences of high workloads or work overload. According to Wilkes et al. (1998) work overloads and time constraints were significant contributors to work stress among community nurses. Workload stress can be defined as reluctance to come to work and a feeling of constant pressure (i.e. no effort is enough) accompanied by the general physiological, psychological, and behavioral stress symptoms (Division of Human Resource, 2000). Al-Aameri AS. (2003) has mentioned in his studies that one of the six factors of occupational stress is pressure originating from workload. Alexandros-Stamatios G.A. et al. (2003) also argued that “factors intrinsic to the job” means explore workload, variety of tasks and rates of pay. Rapidly changing global scene is increasing the pressure of workforce to perform maximum output and enhance competitiveness. Indeed, to perform better to their job, there is a requirement for workers to perform multiple tasks in the workplace to keep abreast of changing technologies (Cascio, 1995; Quick, 1997). The ultimate results of this pressure have been found to one of the important factors influencing job stress in their work (Cahn et al., 2000). A study in UK indicated that the majority of the workers were unhappy with the current culture where they were required to work extended hours and cope with large workloads while simultaneously meeting production targets and deadlines (Townley, 2000). Role ambiguity is another aspect that affects job stress in the workplace. According to Beehr et al. (1976), Cordes & Dougherty (1993), Cooper (1991), Dyer & Quine (1998) and Ursprung (1986) role ambiguity exists when an individual lacks information about the requirements of his or her role, how those role requirements are to be met, and the evaluative procedures available to ensure that the role is being performed successfully. Jackson & Schuler (1985) and Muchinsky (1997) studies found role ambiguity to lead to such negative outcomes as reduces confidence, a sense of hopelessness, anxiety, and depression. </span></p> <p class="CM9" style="line-height:12.0pt"><b><span style="font-size:10.0pt">3. Link between Job Stress and Job Satisfaction </span></b><span style="font-size:10.0pt"></span></p> <p class="CM12" style="line-height:12.0pt"><span style="font-size:10.0pt">Several studies have tried to determine the link between stress and job satisfaction. Job satisfaction and job stress are the two hot focuses in human resource management researches. According to Stamps & Piedmonte (1986) job satisfaction has been found significant relationship with job stress. One study of general practitioners in England </span></p> <p class="Default"><i><span style="font-size:9.0pt;color:windowtext">Published by Canadian Center of Science and Education </span></i><span style="font-size: 9.0pt;color:windowtext"></span></p> <p class="CM9" style="margin-right:8.0pt;line-height:11.9pt"><span style="font-size:10.0pt">identified four job stressors that were predictive of job dissatisfaction (Cooper, et al., 1989). In other study, Vinokur-Kaplan (1991) stated that organization factors such as workload and working condition were negatively related with job satisfaction. Fletcher & Payne (1980) identified that a lack of satisfaction can be a source of stress, while high satisfaction can alleviate the effects of stress. This study reveals that, both of job stress and job satisfaction were found to be interrelated. The study of Landsbergis (1988) and Terry et al. (1993) showed that high levels of work stress are associated with low levels of job satisfaction. Moreover, Cummins (1990) have emphasized that job stressors are predictive of job dissatisfaction and greater propensity to leave the organization. Sheena et al. (2005) studied in UK found that there are some occupations that are reporting worse than average scores on each of the factors such as physical health, psychological well-being, and job satisfaction. The relationship between variables can be very important to academician. If a definite link exists between two variables, it could be possible for a academician to provide intervention in order to increase the level of one of the variables in hope that the intervention will also improve the other variable as well (Koslowsky, et al., 1995). In this study, we would like to examine what extent of interrelation between the job stress and job satisfaction among university academic teachers setting in </span></p> <p class="CM9" style="line-height:12.0pt"><span style="font-size:10.0pt">Pakistan. </span></p> <p class="CM9" style="line-height:12.0pt"><b><span style="font-size:10.0pt">5. Methods </span></b><span style="font-size:10.0pt"></span></p> <p class="CM9" style="line-height:12.0pt"><i><span style="font-size:10.0pt">5.1. Sample </span></i><span style="font-size:10.0pt"></span></p> <p class="CM9" style="line-height:12.0pt"><span style="font-size:10.0pt">A survey instrument in the form of close-ended questionnaire was developed for the purpose of collecting the main data for the study. This study was conducted in public universities in Pakistan. Factors such as precision and confidence, population size, time and cost constraints were taken into consideration in selecting sample size. Using the non-probability sampling technique, a total of 400 respondents were selected as a sample of the study from that university. The respondents come from various faculties in order to give better mixture between business and non-business academician as well as in term of racial mix between respondents to increase the generalization of the result. The actual field survey was conducted over a period one month whereby personal interviews were employed to obtain the required information from the respondents. The reasons of using the personal interview are threefold. Firstly, it allows the interviewer to screen the eligibility of the respondents. Secondly, it also allows a closer supervision and better interaction between the interviewer and respondents in answering the questionnaire. Lastly, the interviewer was able to assist the respondents when they found difficulty in understanding any of the questions in the questionnaire. Two hundred and three academicians completed the questionnaire and the rest did not return it for unknown reasons. The response rate was 67.66% which was very much acceptable in social science research (Fowler, 1988). The participants were 62.56% female and 37.44% male with mean age of 37.6 years. More than 50% of them were married (107 respondent or 52.71%), 71 single, 17 separated, 8 divorced. The sample represented 192 were Malays, 7 Chinese, 3 Indian and only 1 foreigner. The average experience of the participants in their present profession was 7.2 years. </span></p> <p class="CM9" style="line-height:12.0pt"><i><span style="font-size:10.0pt">5.2. Instrument Development </span></i><span style="font-size:10.0pt"></span></p> <p class="CM9" style="margin-right:5.0pt;line-height:12.0pt"><span style="font-size:10.0pt">This instrument used in this study is composed of 3 parts. The first part deals with job stress. Job stress is measured by “Job Stress Questionnaire, JSQ” proposed by Caplan et al. (1975) and Sahu and Gole(2008). This scale included four dimensions from Caplan et al (1975), namely (1) workload, (2) role conflict, (3) role ambiguity and (4) performance pressure which comprised thirteen items. Each of job stressors was measured on a six-point Likert Scale in which 1 indicated “strongly disagree”, 2 indicated “disagree”, 3 indicated “somewhat disagree”, 4 indicated “somewhat agree”, 5 indicated “agree” and 6 indicated “strongly agree”. The main reason for this choice of all six job stressor was widely used in previous studies. Part 2 includes job satisfaction which is measured using Job Descriptive Index (JDI) (Smith et al., 1969), a reliable facet measure over time (Kinicki et al., 2002), applicable across a variety of demographic groups (Golembiewski and Yeager, 1978; Jung et al., 1986) and measured on a six point scale wit least satisfied (1) to very satisfied (6). The structure this section differed from previous studies insofar as it considered satisfaction as a positive phenomenon. Consequently, there was no facility for dissatisfaction. Part 3 includes a number of demographic questions such as gender, age, marital status, race, and education level. </span></p> <p class="CM9" style="line-height:12.0pt"><i><span style="font-size:10.0pt">5.3. Data Analysis Method </span></i><span style="font-size:10.0pt"></span></p> <p class="CM9" style="margin-right:8.0pt;line-height:11.9pt"><span style="font-size:10.0pt">Various statistical methods have been employed to compare the data collected from 500 respondents. These methods include cross-sectional analysis, description analysis and regression analysis. Each method has used to analysis the relationship of different variables. Firstly, the method of this study will also involve Cross-sectional types of research methodology based on the guideline given by Hussey and Hussey (1997). Their reports mention that cross-sectional studies are a positive methodology designed to obtain information on variables in different contexts, but at the same time. Secondly, Descriptive analysis refers to the transformation of raw data into a form that would provide information to describe a set of factors in a situation that will make them easy to understand and interpret (Sekaran, 2000; Zikmund, 2000). This analysis will be given information for the data through the frequency distribution, central tendency, and the dispersion. Data are collected on demographic variables are processed and reported in percentages. Thirdly, multiple regression analysis is an extension of bivariate regression analysis, which allows for the simultaneous investigation of the effect of two or more independent variables on a single interval scale dependent variable (Zikmund, 2000). The dependent variable for this study is Job satisfaction, whose types of measurement are interval. For this study, there are several independent variables relating to Job satisfaction, and job stresses whose types of measurement are interval and simultaneously investigates the several independent variables single variable a multiple linear regression is fitted for these variables. </span></p> <p class="CM9" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph;line-height: 11.8pt"><b><span style="font-size:10.0pt">6. Results and Analysis </span></b><span style="font-size:10.0pt"></span></p> <p class="CM9" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph;line-height: 11.8pt"><i><span style="font-size:10.0pt">6.1. Reliability </span></i><span style="font-size:10.0pt"></span></p> <p class="CM9" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph;line-height: 11.8pt"><span style="font-size:10.0pt">The internal reliability of the items was verified by computing the Cronbach’s alpha (Nunnally, 1978). Nunnally (1978) suggested that a minimum alpha of 0.6 sufficed for early stage of research. The Cronbach alpha estimated for current management role scale was 0.889, relationship with others scale was 0.890, workload pressure scale was 0.890, homework interface scale was 0.908, role ambiguity scale was 0.901, performance pressure scale was 0.894, overall job stress 0.805 and the overall job satisfaction scale was 0.729. As the Cronbach’s alpha in this study were all much higher than 0.6, the constructs were therefore deemed to have adequate reliability. </span></p> <p class="CM9" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph;line-height: 11.8pt"><i><span style="font-size:10.0pt">6.2. Normality of Data and Multi-Collinearity </span></i><span style="font-size:10.0pt"></span></p> <p class="CM9" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph;line-height: 11.8pt"><span style="font-size:10.0pt">This study involves a relatively large sample (203 academicians) and therefore, the Central Limit Theorem could be applied and hence there is no question on normality of the data. Two major methods were utilized in order to determine the presence of multi collinearity among independent variables in this study. These methodologies involved calculation of both a Tolerance test and Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) (Kleinbaum et al, 1988). The results of these analyzes are presented in Table 1. As can be seen from this data, i) none of the Tolerance levels is <or equal="" to="" and="" all="" vif="" values="" are="" well="" below="" the="" measures="" selected="" for="" assessing="" independent="" variables="" in="" this="" study="" do="" not="" reach="" levels="" indicate="" of="" multi="" acceptable="" durbin="" watson="" range="" is="" between="" 5="" analysis="" value="" which="" show="" that="" there="" were="" no="" auto="" correlation="" problems="" data="" used="" span=""></or></span></p> <p class="CM9" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph;line-height: 11.8pt"><i><span style="font-size:10.0pt">6.3. Hypotheses Testing </span></i><span style="font-size:10.0pt"></span></p> <p class="CM9" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph;line-height: 11.8pt"><span style="font-size:10.0pt">To test seven hypotheses the data were analyzed using multiple linear regression analysis following the guidelines established by Hair et al. (1998). The purpose of regression analysis is to relate a dependent variable to a set of independent variables (Mendenhal and Sincich, 1993). Table III present the result of predictors of ICT adoption. The regression coefficient of job stressors on job stress was estimated. The overall model is significant at the 1% level. The independent variables explain 50% of in the variance the job stress. Of the independent variables, workload pressure (+), homework interface (+), role ambiguity (+), and performance pressure (+) are the predictors statistically different from zero and had a significant and direct effect on job stress. The remaining management role (+), relationship with others (-) had no significant direct effect on job stress. Table II presents the results of the individual hypotheses being tested. </span></p> <p class="CM9" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph;line-height: 11.8pt"><span style="font-size:10.0pt">6.3.1. The Results of Hypothesis 1 </span></p> <p class="CM9" style="line-height:12.0pt"><span style="font-size:10.0pt">The H1 (management role) is not in agreement with a wide range of previous findings (Alexandros-Stamatios et. al., 2003 and Susan C., 2003, Kahn and Quinn, 1970). Multiple regression analysis shows results of management role (beta = 0.053, p-value = .364). The unimportance of management role may be due to that management of that university is very much supportive to their academics. </span></p> <p class="CM9" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph;line-height: 11.8pt"><span style="font-size:10.0pt">6.3.2. The Results of Hypothesis 2 </span></p> <p class="CM9" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph;line-height: 11.8pt"><span style="font-size:10.0pt">Surprisingly, the results of this study shows that the association between relationship with others and job stress is not significant with β=0.055 (ρ=0.239). The unimportance of relationship factor may be due to fact that all the faculty members are very much friendly and cooperative. However, we can expect to get stronger association if the conflict arises from their colleagues. </span></p> <p class="CM9" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph;line-height: 11.8pt"><span style="font-size:10.0pt">6.3.3. The Results of Hypothesis 3 </span></p> <p class="CM13" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph; line-height:11.8pt"><span style="font-size:10.0pt">Several studies have highlighted the deleterious consequences of high workloads or work overload. A study of work stress among professionals found that teachers were most likely to experience work overload and that is one of the cause of work stress (Chan et al. (2000). As expected, the results of this study shows that the relationship between workload pressure and job stress is significant with β=0.283 (ρ=0.001). The result further indicates that the direction </span></p> <p class="Default"><i><span style="font-size:9.0pt;color:windowtext">Published by Canadian Center of Science and Education </span></i><span style="font-size: 9.0pt;color:windowtext"></span></p> <p class="CM9" style="line-height:12.0pt"><span style="font-size:10.0pt">of the associations is positive in which it implies that the more the more work overload is given the academician, the possibility of them to face of job stress will be higher. </span></p> <p class="CM9" style="line-height:12.0pt"><span style="font-size:10.0pt">6.3.4. The Results of Hypothesis 4 <br /> <br /> </span></p> <p class="CM9" style="line-height:12.0pt"><span style="font-size:10.0pt">According to Lasky (1995) demands associated with family and finances can be a major source of<br />‘extra-organizational’ stress that can complicate, or precipitate, work-place stress. The multiple regression analysis<br />shows that the association between homework interface and job stress is significant with β=0.218 (ρ=0.01). The<br />result attests that the occurrence of stressors in the workplace either immediately following a period of chronic stress<br />at home, or in conjunction with other major life stressors, is likely to have a marked impact on outcome (Russon &<br />Vitaliano, 1995). Furthermore, with the positive coefficient value, it could be concluded that the higher the problem<br />in the home, the chances for the job stress will be greater. <br /> <br /> </span></p> <p class="CM4"><span style="font-size:10.0pt">6.3.5. The Results of Hypothesis 5<br />Most research suggests that role ambiguity is indeed negatively correlated with job satisfaction, job involvement,<br />performance, tension, propensity to leave the job and job performance variables (Rizzo, House, & Lirtzman 1970;<br />Van Sell, Brief, & Schuler 1981; Fisher & Gitelson 1983; Jackson & Schuler 1985; Singh 1998). The result of this<br />study shows that the association between role ambiguity and job stress is significant with β=0.180 (ρ=0.01). The<br /> <br /> </span></p> <p class="CM9" style="line-height:12.0pt"><span style="font-size:10.0pt">support for hypothesis 5 reflects that more complex and rapid changes of organization exist in the faculty, the<br />possibility of job stress will be higher. <br /> <br /> </span></p> <p class="CM9" style="line-height:12.0pt"><span style="font-size:10.0pt">6.3.6. The Results of Hypothesis 6 <br /> <br /> </span></p> <p class="CM9" style="line-height:13.9pt"><span style="font-size:10.0pt">The support of H6 (performance pressure) is in line with the results found by Chan et al. (2000).<br />Multiple regression analysis shows relative advantage having β=0.209 (ρ=0.001)is the strongest predictor of job<br />stress. It is expected since past literature has consistently shown that performance pressure now a day is one of most<br />significant and positive influence on job stress (Townley, 2000). <br /> <br /> </span></p> <p class="CM9" style="line-height:13.9pt"><span style="font-size:10.0pt">6.3.7. The Results of Hypothesis 7 <br /> <br /> </span></p> <p class="CM9" style="line-height:12.0pt"><span style="font-size:10.0pt">To support hypothesis 7 we also used multiple regression analysis to understand the effects of job stress versus job<br />satisfaction. With job satisfaction as dependent variable and job stress as independent variable, a regression equation<br />to represent this relationship is computed. Regress results are shown Tables III and IV. Table III depicts the<br />computer F-value and R square to understand the overall significance of the regression model. Research model<br />yielding significant p-values (p<0.01) and R square around 10 percent of the variance in job satisfaction was<br />explained. Table IV lists detailed data on the statistical coefficients of the regression model. Therefore, hypothesis 7<br />is supported by the collected data. <br /> <br /> </span></p> <p class="CM9" style="line-height:12.0pt"><b><span style="font-size:10.0pt">7. Conclusions </span></b><span style="font-size:10.0pt"></span></p> <p class="CM9" style="line-height:12.0pt"><span style="font-size:10.0pt">Based on the finding of the study, there are a few key points that can be used to conclude this research paper. It is very important that the university understands the needs of its employees and provide what is best for the employees. Constant appraisal programs and appreciation should be given to reinstate and motivate the employees. Motivation is a key factor as well in affecting job stress among employees. Employees who are highly motivated will feel happier and are more willing to work for the organizations. Unhealthy job stress among the people responsible in assisting the future generation’s education will ultimately affect their intellectual and social abilities. Failure of the educational institutions in providing a healthy working environment or even a working environment with the minimal level possible of unhealthy job stress would lead to many more problems in the near future, especially in the employees’ work performance in teaching students and administrative part of the university. At the end of the day, both employer and employees are responsible when it comes to the issue of handling stress. Because it is the institution, internal and external environment that cause the stress, the employees face the stress, and the employers and students that will experience the effect of the stresses experience by the university teachers. </span></p> <p class="CM9" style="line-height:12.0pt"><b><span style="font-size:10.0pt">References </span></b><span style="font-size:10.0pt"></span></p> <p class="CM9" style="line-height:12.0pt"><span style="font-size:10.0pt">Al-Aameri A.S. (2003). Source of job stress for nurses in public hospitals, <i>Saudi Medical Journal, </i>24(11),<br />pp.1183-1187.<br /> <br /> </span></p> <p class="CM4"><span style="font-size:10.0pt">Alexandros-Stamatios G. A., Matilyn J.D., and Cary L.C. (2003). Occupational Stress, Job satisfaction, and health<br />state in male and female junior hospital doctors in Greece, <i>Journal of Managerial Psychology</i>, 18(6), pp. 592-621.<br /> <br /> </span></p> <p class="CM7"><span style="font-size:10.0pt">Beehr, Terry A. (1995). <i>Psychological Stress in the Workplace, </i>London and New York.<br />Beehr, T.A. & Newman, J.E. (1978). Job Stress, Employee Health and Organizational Effectiveness: A Facet<br />Analysis, Model and Literature Review, <i>Personnel Psychology</i>, 31, Pp.665-669.<br /> <br /> </span></p> <p class="CM7"><span style="font-size:10.0pt">Beehr, T.A., Walsh, J.T., & Taber, T.D. (1976). Perceived situational moderators of the relationship between<br /> <br /> </span></p> <p class="CM9" style="line-height:13.9pt"><span style="font-size:10.0pt">subjective role ambiguity and role strain, <i>Journal of Applied Psychology,</i> 61, pp.35-40.<br />Caplan, R.D., Cobb, S., French, J.R.P., Jr., Harrison, R.V., and Pinneau, S.R. (1975). Job Demands and Worker<br />Health, <i>HEW Publication No</i>. (NIOSH), pp. 75-160. <br /> <br /> </span></p> <p class="CM4"><span style="font-size:10.0pt">Cascio, W.F. (1995). Wither industrial and organizational psychology in a Changing world? <i>American Psychologist</i>,<br />50, pp.928-939. <br /> <br /> </span></p> <p class="CM9" style="line-height:13.9pt"><span style="font-size:10.0pt">Chan, K.B., Lai, G., Ko, Y.C. & Boey K.W. (2000). Work stress among six professional groups: the Singapore<br />experience, <i>Social Science Medicine</i>, 50(10), pp.1415-1432.<br />Coleman J.C. (1976). <i>Abnormal Psychology and Modern Life </i>(Indian reprint), Taraporewalla, Bombay. <br /> <br /> </span></p> <p class="CM9" style="line-height:12.0pt"><span style="font-size:10.0pt">Cooper, C.L. (1991). Stress in organizations. In M. Smith (Ed.). <i>Analyzing Organizational Behaviour. </i>London:<br />MacMillan.<br /> <br /> </span></p> <p class="CM4"><span style="font-size:10.0pt">Cooper, C., U. Rout and B. Faragher. (1989). Mental Health, Job Satisfaction, and Job Stress among General <br /> <br /> </span></p> <p class="CM9" style="line-height:13.9pt"><span style="font-size:10.0pt">Practitioners, <i>B Medical Journal</i>, 298, pp366-370.<br />Cordes, C.L., and Dougherty, T.W. (1993). A review and integration of research on job burnout, <i>Academy o</i>f<br /><i>Management Review</i>, 18, pp.621-656. <br /> <br /> </span></p> <p class="CM9" style="line-height:12.0pt"><span style="font-size:10.0pt">Cummins R.C. (1990). Job stress and the buffering effort of supervisory support, <i>Group and Organizational Studies</i>,<br />15(1), pp.92-104.<br /> <br /> </span></p> <p class="CM4"><span style="font-size:10.0pt">Dyer, S., & Quine, L. (1998). Predictors of job satisfaction and burnout among the direct care teachers of a<br /> <br /> </span></p> <p class="CM9" style="line-height:13.9pt"><span style="font-size:10.0pt">community learning disability service, <i>Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities, </i>11 (4), pp.320-332.<br />Dyer, S., & Quine, L. (1998). The effects of job demands and control on employee attendance and satisfaction,<br /><i>Journal of Organizational Behaviour</i>, 12, pp.596-608 <br /> <br /> </span></p> <p class="CM9" style="line-height:12.0pt"><span style="font-size:10.0pt">Fisher, C.D., & Gitelson, R. (1983). A meta-analysis of the correlated of the role conflict and ambiguity, <i>Journal o</i>f<br /><i>Applied Psychology</i>, 68, pp.320-333. <i>European Journal of Social Sciences – Volume 8, Number 1(2009)</i> 130 <br /> <br /> </span></p> <p class="CM4"><span style="font-size:10.0pt">Fletcher, J.B., & Payne, R. (1971). Stress and Work: A Review and a Theoretical Framework, Part 1, <i>Personne</i>l <br /> <br /> </span></p> <p class="CM9" style="line-height:13.9pt"><i><span style="font-size:10.0pt">Review</span></i><span style="font-size:10.0pt">, 9, pp. 1-20.<br />Golembiewski, R.G., & Yeager, S. (1978). Testing the applicability of the JDI to various demographic groups,<br /><i>Academy of Management Journal</i>, 21, pp.514-519.<br /> <br /> </span></p> <p class="CM9" style="line-height:12.0pt"><span style="font-size:10.0pt">Hussey, J. and Hussey, R. (1997). <i>Business Research, A practical Guide for Undergraduate and Postgraduate Students, </i>Macmillan Press Ltd, London. </span></p> <p class="CM4"><span style="font-size:10.0pt">Igharia, Magid and Greenhaus, Jeffrey H. (1992). Determinants of MIS Employees’ turnover Intentions: A </span></p> <p class="CM9" style="line-height:13.9pt"><span style="font-size:10.0pt">Structural Equation Model, <i>Communications of the ACM</i>, 35(2), pp.34-49 Jackson, S.E., & Schuler, R.S. (1985). A meta-analysis and conceptual critique of research on role ambiguity and role conflict in work settings, <i>Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes</i>, 36, pp.16-78. </span></p> <p class="CM9" style="line-height:12.0pt"><span style="font-size:10.0pt">Jung, K.G., Dalessio, A., Johnson, S.M. (1986). Stability of the factor structure of the Job Descriptive Index, <i>Academy of Management Journal</i>, 29(3), pp.609-616. </span></p> <p class="CM12" style="line-height:12.0pt"><span style="font-size:10.0pt">Kahn, R.L., & Quinn, R.P. (1970). Role stress: A framework for analysis, In A. McLean (Ed.), <i>Occupational mental health</i>, New York: Wiley. </span></p> <p class="CM11" style="line-height:12.0pt"><span style="font-size:10.0pt">Table 1. Test of Co linearity </span></p> <table class="MsoNormalTable" style="width:479.4pt;border-collapse:collapse;border:none;mso-padding-alt: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt" border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="639"> <tbody><tr style="mso-yfti-irow:0;mso-yfti-firstrow:yes;height:13.25pt"> <td style="width:160.15pt;border:solid black 1.0pt;mso-border-alt: solid black .6pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:13.25pt" width="214"> <p class="Default"><b><span style="font-size:8.0pt">Variable </span></b><span style="font-size:8.0pt"></span></p> </td> <td style="width:159.65pt;border:solid black 1.0pt;border-left: none;mso-border-left-alt:solid black .6pt;mso-border-alt:solid black .6pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:13.25pt" width="213"> <p class="Default"><b><span style="font-size:8.0pt">Tolerance </span></b><span style="font-size:8.0pt"></span></p> </td> <td style="width:159.65pt;border:solid black 1.0pt;border-left: none;mso-border-left-alt:solid black .6pt;mso-border-alt:solid black .6pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:13.25pt" width="213"> <p class="Default"><b><span style="font-size:8.0pt">VIF </span></b><span style="font-size:8.0pt"></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style="mso-yfti-irow:1;height:12.5pt"> <td style="width:160.15pt;border:solid black 1.0pt;border-top:none; mso-border-top-alt:solid black .6pt;mso-border-alt:solid black .6pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:12.5pt" width="214"> <p class="Default"><span style="font-size:8.0pt">Management role </span></p> </td> <td style="width:159.65pt;border-top:none;border-left:none; border-bottom:solid black 1.0pt;border-right:solid black 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt: solid black .6pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid black .6pt;mso-border-alt:solid black .6pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:12.5pt" width="213"> <p class="Default"><span style="font-size:8.0pt">876 </span></p> </td> <td style="width:159.65pt;border-top:none;border-left:none; border-bottom:solid black 1.0pt;border-right:solid black 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt: solid black .6pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid black .6pt;mso-border-alt:solid black .6pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:12.5pt" width="213"> <p class="Default"><span style="font-size:8.0pt">3.336 </span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style="mso-yfti-irow:2;height:12.5pt"> <td style="width:160.15pt;border:solid black 1.0pt;border-top:none; mso-border-top-alt:solid black .6pt;mso-border-alt:solid black .6pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:12.5pt" width="214"> <p class="Default"><span style="font-size:8.0pt">Relationship with others </span></p> </td> <td style="width:159.65pt;border-top:none;border-left:none; border-bottom:solid black 1.0pt;border-right:solid black 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt: solid black .6pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid black .6pt;mso-border-alt:solid black .6pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:12.5pt" width="213"> <p class="Default"><span style="font-size:8.0pt">876 </span></p> </td> <td style="width:159.65pt;border-top:none;border-left:none; border-bottom:solid black 1.0pt;border-right:solid black 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt: solid black .6pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid black .6pt;mso-border-alt:solid black .6pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:12.5pt" width="213"> <p class="Default"><span style="font-size:8.0pt">3.777 </span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style="mso-yfti-irow:3;height:12.5pt"> <td style="width:160.15pt;border:solid black 1.0pt;border-top:none; mso-border-top-alt:solid black .6pt;mso-border-alt:solid black .6pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:12.5pt" width="214"> <p class="Default"><span style="font-size:8.0pt">Workload pressure </span></p> </td> <td style="width:159.65pt;border-top:none;border-left:none; border-bottom:solid black 1.0pt;border-right:solid black 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt: solid black .6pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid black .6pt;mso-border-alt:solid black .6pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:12.5pt" width="213"> <p class="Default"><span style="font-size:8.0pt">809 </span></p> </td> <td style="width:159.65pt;border-top:none;border-left:none; border-bottom:solid black 1.0pt;border-right:solid black 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt: solid black .6pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid black .6pt;mso-border-alt:solid black .6pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:12.5pt" width="213"> <p class="Default"><span style="font-size:8.0pt">2.8654 </span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style="mso-yfti-irow:4;height:12.5pt"> <td style="width:160.15pt;border:solid black 1.0pt;border-top:none; mso-border-top-alt:solid black .6pt;mso-border-alt:solid black .6pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:12.5pt" width="214"> <p class="Default"><span style="font-size:8.0pt">Homework interface </span></p> </td> <td style="width:159.65pt;border-top:none;border-left:none; border-bottom:solid black 1.0pt;border-right:solid black 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt: solid black .6pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid black .6pt;mso-border-alt:solid black .6pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:12.5pt" width="213"> <p class="Default"><span style="font-size:8.0pt">987 </span></p> </td> <td style="width:159.65pt;border-top:none;border-left:none; border-bottom:solid black 1.0pt;border-right:solid black 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt: solid black .6pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid black .6pt;mso-border-alt:solid black .6pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:12.5pt" width="213"> <p class="Default"><span style="font-size:8.0pt">6.767 </span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style="mso-yfti-irow:5;height:12.5pt"> <td style="width:160.15pt;border:solid black 1.0pt;border-top:none; mso-border-top-alt:solid black .6pt;mso-border-alt:solid black .6pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:12.5pt" width="214"> <p class="Default"><span style="font-size:8.0pt">Role ambiguity </span></p> </td> <td style="width:159.65pt;border-top:none;border-left:none; border-bottom:solid black 1.0pt;border-right:solid black 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt: solid black .6pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid black .6pt;mso-border-alt:solid black .6pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:12.5pt" width="213"> <p class="Default"><span style="font-size:8.0pt">590 </span></p> </td> <td style="width:159.65pt;border-top:none;border-left:none; border-bottom:solid black 1.0pt;border-right:solid black 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt: solid black .6pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid black .6pt;mso-border-alt:solid black .6pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:12.5pt" width="213"> <p class="Default"><span style="font-size:8.0pt">2.888 </span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style="mso-yfti-irow:6;mso-yfti-lastrow:yes;height:12.75pt"> <td style="width:160.15pt;border:solid black 1.0pt;border-top:none; mso-border-top-alt:solid black .6pt;mso-border-alt:solid black .6pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:12.75pt" width="214"> <p class="Default"><span style="font-size:8.0pt">performance pressure </span></p> </td> <td style="width:159.65pt;border-top:none;border-left:none; border-bottom:solid black 1.0pt;border-right:solid black 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt: solid black .6pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid black .6pt;mso-border-alt:solid black .6pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:12.75pt" width="213"> <p class="Default"><span style="font-size:8.0pt">786 </span></p> </td> <td style="width:159.65pt;border-top:none;border-left:none; border-bottom:solid black 1.0pt;border-right:solid black 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt: solid black .6pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid black .6pt;mso-border-alt:solid black .6pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:12.75pt" width="213"> <p class="Default"><span style="font-size:8.0pt">3.4333 </span></p> </td> </tr> </tbody></table> <p class="Default"><span style="color:windowtext"> </span></p> <p class="Default"><i><span style="font-size:9.0pt;color:windowtext">Published by Canadian Center of Science and Education </span></i><span style="font-size: 9.0pt;color:windowtext"></span></p> <p class="CM11"><span style="font-size:10.0pt">Table 2. Regression Results </span></p> <table class="MsoNormalTable" style="width:392.5pt;border-collapse:collapse;border:none;mso-padding-alt: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt" border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="523"> <tbody><tr style="mso-yfti-irow:0;mso-yfti-firstrow:yes;height:13.15pt"> <td style="width:110.5pt;border:solid black 1.0pt;mso-border-alt: solid black .6pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:13.15pt" width="147"> <p class="Default"><b><span style="font-size:8.0pt">Variables </span></b><span style="font-size:8.0pt"></span></p> </td> <td style="width:97.25pt;border:solid black 1.0pt;border-left:none; mso-border-left-alt:solid black .6pt;mso-border-alt:solid black .6pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:13.15pt" width="130"> <p class="Default"><b><span style="font-size:8.0pt">Beta </span></b><span style="font-size:8.0pt"></span></p> </td> <td style="width:93.0pt;border:solid black 1.0pt;border-left:none; mso-border-left-alt:solid black .6pt;mso-border-alt:solid black .6pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:13.15pt" width="124"> <p class="Default"><b><span style="font-size:8.0pt">t-value </span></b><span style="font-size:8.0pt"></span></p> </td> <td style="width:91.75pt;border:solid black 1.0pt;border-left:none; mso-border-left-alt:solid black .6pt;mso-border-alt:solid black .6pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:13.15pt" width="122"> <p class="Default"><b><span style="font-size:8.0pt">p-value </span></b><span style="font-size:8.0pt"></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style="mso-yfti-irow:1;height:12.5pt"> <td style="width:110.5pt;border:solid black 1.0pt;border-top:none; mso-border-top-alt:solid black .6pt;mso-border-alt:solid black .6pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:12.5pt" width="147"> <p class="Default"><span style="font-size:8.0pt">Constant </span></p> </td> <td style="width:97.25pt;border-top:none;border-left:none; border-bottom:solid black 1.0pt;border-right:solid black 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt: solid black .6pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid black .6pt;mso-border-alt:solid black .6pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:12.5pt" width="130"> <p class="Default"><span style="font-size:8.0pt">1.781 </span></p> </td> <td style="width:93.0pt;border-top:none;border-left:none; border-bottom:solid black 1.0pt;border-right:solid black 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt: solid black .6pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid black .6pt;mso-border-alt:solid black .6pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:12.5pt" width="124"> <p class="Default"><span style="font-size:8.0pt">.076 </span></p> </td> <td style="width:91.75pt;border-top:none;border-left: none;border-bottom:solid black 1.0pt;border-right:solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid black .6pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid black .6pt; mso-border-alt:solid black .6pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:12.5pt" valign="top" width="122"> <p class="Default"><span style="color:windowtext"> </span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style="mso-yfti-irow:2;height:12.65pt"> <td style="width:110.5pt;border:solid black 1.0pt;border-top:none; mso-border-top-alt:solid black .6pt;mso-border-alt:solid black .6pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:12.65pt" width="147"> <p class="Default"><span style="font-size:8.0pt">Management role </span></p> </td> <td style="width:97.25pt;border-top:none;border-left:none; border-bottom:solid black 1.0pt;border-right:solid black 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt: solid black .6pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid black .6pt;mso-border-alt:solid black .6pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:12.65pt" width="130"> <p class="Default"><span style="font-size:8.0pt">.053 </span></p> </td> <td style="width:93.0pt;border-top:none;border-left:none; border-bottom:solid black 1.0pt;border-right:solid black 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt: solid black .6pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid black .6pt;mso-border-alt:solid black .6pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:12.65pt" width="124"> <p class="Default"><span style="font-size:8.0pt">.909 </span></p> </td> <td style="width:91.75pt;border-top:none;border-left:none; border-bottom:solid black 1.0pt;border-right:solid black 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt: solid black .6pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid black .6pt;mso-border-alt:solid black .6pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:12.65pt" width="122"> <p class="Default"><span style="font-size:8.0pt">.364 </span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style="mso-yfti-irow:3;height:12.5pt"> <td style="width:110.5pt;border:solid black 1.0pt;border-top:none; mso-border-top-alt:solid black .6pt;mso-border-alt:solid black .6pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:12.5pt" width="147"> <p class="Default"><span style="font-size:8.0pt">Relationship with others </span></p> </td> <td style="width:97.25pt;border-top:none;border-left:none; border-bottom:solid black 1.0pt;border-right:solid black 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt: solid black .6pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid black .6pt;mso-border-alt:solid black .6pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:12.5pt" width="130"> <p class="Default"><span style="font-size:8.0pt">-.062 </span></p> </td> <td style="width:93.0pt;border-top:none;border-left:none; border-bottom:solid black 1.0pt;border-right:solid black 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt: solid black .6pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid black .6pt;mso-border-alt:solid black .6pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:12.5pt" width="124"> <p class="Default"><span style="font-size:8.0pt">-1.032 </span></p> </td> <td style="width:91.75pt;border-top:none;border-left:none; border-bottom:solid black 1.0pt;border-right:solid black 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt: solid black .6pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid black .6pt;mso-border-alt:solid black .6pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:12.5pt" width="122"> <p class="Default"><span style="font-size:8.0pt">.303 </span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style="mso-yfti-irow:4;height:12.5pt"> <td style="width:110.5pt;border:solid black 1.0pt;border-top:none; mso-border-top-alt:solid black .6pt;mso-border-alt:solid black .6pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:12.5pt" width="147"> <p class="Default"><span style="font-size:8.0pt">Workload pressure </span></p> </td> <td style="width:97.25pt;border-top:none;border-left:none; border-bottom:solid black 1.0pt;border-right:solid black 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt: solid black .6pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid black .6pt;mso-border-alt:solid black .6pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:12.5pt" width="130"> <p class="Default"><span style="font-size:8.0pt">.283 </span></p> </td> <td style="width:93.0pt;border-top:none;border-left:none; border-bottom:solid black 1.0pt;border-right:solid black 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt: solid black .6pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid black .6pt;mso-border-alt:solid black .6pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:12.5pt" width="124"> <p class="Default"><span style="font-size:8.0pt">4.013 </span></p> </td> <td style="width:91.75pt;border-top:none;border-left:none; border-bottom:solid black 1.0pt;border-right:solid black 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt: solid black .6pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid black .6pt;mso-border-alt:solid black .6pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:12.5pt" width="122"> <p class="Default"><span style="font-size:8.0pt">.000 </span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style="mso-yfti-irow:5;height:12.5pt"> <td style="width:110.5pt;border:solid black 1.0pt;border-top:none; mso-border-top-alt:solid black .6pt;mso-border-alt:solid black .6pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:12.5pt" width="147"> <p class="Default"><span style="font-size:8.0pt">Homework interface </span></p> </td> <td style="width:97.25pt;border-top:none;border-left:none; border-bottom:solid black 1.0pt;border-right:solid black 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt: solid black .6pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid black .6pt;mso-border-alt:solid black .6pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:12.5pt" width="130"> <p class="Default"><span style="font-size:8.0pt">.218 </span></p> </td> <td style="width:93.0pt;border-top:none;border-left:none; border-bottom:solid black 1.0pt;border-right:solid black 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt: solid black .6pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid black .6pt;mso-border-alt:solid black .6pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:12.5pt" width="124"> <p class="Default"><span style="font-size:8.0pt">2.768 </span></p> </td> <td style="width:91.75pt;border-top:none;border-left:none; border-bottom:solid black 1.0pt;border-right:solid black 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt: solid black .6pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid black .6pt;mso-border-alt:solid black .6pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:12.5pt" width="122"> <p class="Default"><span style="font-size:8.0pt">.006 </span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style="mso-yfti-irow:6;height:12.5pt"> <td style="width:110.5pt;border:solid black 1.0pt;border-top:none; mso-border-top-alt:solid black .6pt;mso-border-alt:solid black .6pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:12.5pt" width="147"> <p class="Default"><span style="font-size:8.0pt">Role ambiguity </span></p> </td> <td style="width:97.25pt;border-top:none;border-left:none; border-bottom:solid black 1.0pt;border-right:solid black 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt: solid black .6pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid black .6pt;mso-border-alt:solid black .6pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:12.5pt" width="130"> <p class="Default"><span style="font-size:8.0pt">.180 </span></p> </td> <td style="width:93.0pt;border-top:none;border-left:none; border-bottom:solid black 1.0pt;border-right:solid black 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt: solid black .6pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid black .6pt;mso-border-alt:solid black .6pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:12.5pt" width="124"> <p class="Default"><span style="font-size:8.0pt">2.674 </span></p> </td> <td style="width:91.75pt;border-top:none;border-left:none; border-bottom:solid black 1.0pt;border-right:solid black 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt: solid black .6pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid black .6pt;mso-border-alt:solid black .6pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:12.5pt" width="122"> <p class="Default"><span style="font-size:8.0pt">.008 </span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style="mso-yfti-irow:7;mso-yfti-lastrow:yes;height:12.75pt"> <td style="width:110.5pt;border:solid black 1.0pt;border-top:none; mso-border-top-alt:solid black .6pt;mso-border-alt:solid black .6pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:12.75pt" width="147"> <p class="Default"><span style="font-size:8.0pt">Performance Pressure </span></p> </td> <td style="width:97.25pt;border-top:none;border-left:none; border-bottom:solid black 1.0pt;border-right:solid black 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt: solid black .6pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid black .6pt;mso-border-alt:solid black .6pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:12.75pt" width="130"> <p class="Default"><span style="font-size:8.0pt">.209 </span></p> </td> <td style="width:93.0pt;border-top:none;border-left:none; border-bottom:solid black 1.0pt;border-right:solid black 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt: solid black .6pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid black .6pt;mso-border-alt:solid black .6pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:12.75pt" width="124"> <p class="Default"><span style="font-size:8.0pt">3.429 </span></p> </td> <td style="width:91.75pt;border-top:none;border-left:none; border-bottom:solid black 1.0pt;border-right:solid black 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt: solid black .6pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid black .6pt;mso-border-alt:solid black .6pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;height:12.75pt" width="122"> <p class="Default"><span style="font-size:8.0pt">.001 </span></p> </td> </tr> </tbody></table> <p class="Default"><span style="color:windowtext"> </span></p> <p class="CM8" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-size:10.0pt">Table 3. Summary of Regression Analysis Effects of Job Stress toward Job Satisfaction </span></p> <p class="CM10" style="margin-right:160.65pt;text-align:justify;text-justify: inter-ideograph;line-height:15.65pt"><b><span style="font-size:10.0pt">Regression Statistics F-Value P-Value Adj-R2 Durbin-Watson Test Values 24.098 **0.00 0.103 1.869 **p<0.01 </span></b><span style="font-size:10.0pt"></span></p> <p class="CM8" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-size:10.0pt">Table 4. Relationship between Job Stress and Job Satisfaction </span></p> <p class="CM8" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><b><span style="font-size:10.0pt">Variables Standardized Error of Coefficient t-value Standardized Regression Coefficient (beta) (p-value) </span></b><span style="font-size:10.0pt"></span></p> <p class="CM8" style="text-align:justify;text-justify:inter-ideograph"><span style="font-size:10.0pt">Job stress 0.035 -4.909 -0.327 (0.00)** **p<0.01 </span></p>Al-Mansor Abu saidhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09355698983918954375noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8427095828809940450.post-39971565864638142512011-02-25T03:17:00.001-08:002011-02-25T03:43:00.559-08:00Effect of human capital, motivation and supervisor support on employee career success<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><b style=""><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;"><span style="background-image: none; background-repeat: repeat; background-attachment: scroll; background-position: 0% 0%; -moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-origin: padding; -moz-background-size: auto auto; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Effect of human capital, motivation and supervisor support on employee career success</span></span></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Organizational flexibility is determined by the human resources (HR).</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Resources held a high capability and skills (knowledge assets) has a competitive advantage so as to win the competition.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">And the company will be more competitive if it treats the human resources as a partner who managed in accordance with state requirements.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">In the process of internal development demanded thorough changes in the pattern of human resource management within the company.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Claims of employees are no longer limited to financial compensation, but leads to non-financial compensation so that the career is no longer interpreted as a certain level of position that will be achieved, but more as a psychological career is feeling proud of their achievements when someone important goal in life is achieved and not limited to job performance.</span></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">The concept of career put more emphasis on the interests and goals of employees so that employees are encouraged to be more responsible for their own careers.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Employees are free to express an idea or ideas in accordance with skills and opportunities to develop themselves.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Therefore, to achieve career success of employees the organization is expected to create a system of attractive and flexible career.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">In the theory of human capital in a rational worker makes a choice to know the investment of capital it has.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Individuals make rational choices or want to invest more time, effort, and money in education, training, and experience.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Here, employees weigh the advantages and disadvantages of the decision or investment, including cost and potential for appreciation and investment.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Investments will result in increased awards and tops that will include increased employee salaries will achieve career success.</span></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Based on human capital theory, workers who are more educated have more options because they have increased the human capital.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">The period in office and years of service in the organization is also viewed as an investment in human capital.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Where the term of office and years of service in the organization longer considered to have had the expertise and gain more experience and company.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Thus the organization will better appreciate the individuals who have high levels of human capital, for example, employees who have higher education levels, tenure and years of service in the organization and more training.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">The ability of managers to motivate, influence, guide and communicate with subordinates will determine the effectiveness of managers.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Motivating is an activity that resulted, distribute, and maintain human behavior.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Ml Motivation is an important subject for managers, because, by definition, managers have to work with and through others.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Managers need to understand certain people behave Facebook to affect it to work in accordance with the desired organization.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Individuals will be motivated to try if the hopes and efforts will increase the performance and will provide valuable results.</span></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Interest in career planning in an organization has been known to improve efficiency and profitability growth in the organization so that it can survive in the long run, can increase the desire to use, and development of employee talent.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">And individual perspective, providing insight into career planning and guidance, recognition of career opportunities that would reduce the stress associated with job and career adjustment (Gray et at., 1990 in Aryee and Yaw, 1993).</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">In addition, workers' desire for a strong increase in expectations has Realities of time and effort used to achieve career success.</span></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Support employer is a state in which individuals receive special attention and several senior managers including the sponsor.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">ml indicates that subordinates who receive training and supervisor means has received support and superiors.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Leader-member exchange and mentoring is a variable and the support boss Leader-member exchange is a form of quality relationships between superiors and subordinates.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Emotional boss is a characteristic and a superior relationship with a subordinate (Liden, Sparrowe, and Wayne, 1997 in Wayne et al., 1999).</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Mentoring is a strong working relationship between senior (mentor) and junior (trained) in an organization.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Employees who follow the mentoring had higher satisfaction and have the opportunity to be promoted than employees who do not follow the mentoring.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Support your boss can be a force to improve the success of employees in an organization.</span></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">With the increasing choice of a variety of jobs and the demands of technology development, career success will depend on his ability to do various things in the future.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">The tendency of the future organization of the flat (flat) means that career success is not only considered a promotion.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Besides the company also must help employees understand the development of activities that will lead to a successful career.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">To be successful in business competition in an ever-changing environment if there is a change, then the company must continue to develop the skills of existing workers so that is not easily left behind.</span></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">This research is a replication and study conducted by Wayne et.al (1999).</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">According to Wayne et al.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">(1999) variabe1-variabe1 that could affect career success is human capital, motivation, and access to the boss or supervisor support.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Understanding the factors that predict career success is a topic of interest to individuals and organizations.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">As more organizations encourage employees to manage their own time, the organization continues to have an interest in identifying factors that predict career success for effectively selecting and developing high-potential employees.</span></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">With the career interests of individuals and organizations, there is a need to examine the factors that affect career success.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Empirical research has explained this problem by identifying the variables related to career success, such as employee demographics, human capital, motivation, influence behavior, and access to mentors.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">The purpose of this study was to examine simultaneously the objective and subjective career success in the same study.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">specifically, the relative influence and human capital, motivation and support of superiors.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">In achieving career success most important role is tenting career mobility system that is contest-and sponsored-mobility norm mobi1ity norm.</span></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">In the contest-mobility norm of each of its eligible employees eligible for the promotion to a higher level-sponsored mobi1iy The norm is to select employees with high skills and receive support and guidance from his superiors.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Supervisor as a sponsor or supervisor to select some officials considered capable of occupying that position so that less attention to other employees or all officers to be promoted.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Cognitive ability and intelligence (contest-mobi1iry norm) essential to the progress in the beginning of his career.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Any employee who has no experience in the beginning of his career, cognitive ability is very useful when running career.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Along with the times, a lot of standing cause business competition is more strict.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Here, competition occurs not only in terms of production quality but also on recruitment.</span></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">PT.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Novotel I have a big challenge to compete with other companies.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Action to take is to focus on improving human resources and employee career success and a variety of sources, which is equipped with a strong organizational conditions.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">In recruiting employees who have and are willing to devote themselves totally to the A SCOTT I have a strategy for employees to feel the existence of a scholarship program for employees training and development, motivation and a boss who will support the careers of employees.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">That way employees will be developed so that this potential can be used by the company.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Besides the good relationship between employees and superiors on.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">A SCOTT I will improve performance so that employees can be promoted to a higher level and ultimately the employees will achieve career success.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Based on the background of the problem the problem of the problem in this study: What are the variables of human capital (1) whether the variables of human capital, motivation, and supervisor support had a significant influence on career success?</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Among the variables of human capital, motivation, and support from superiors, which has a dominant influence on career success?</span></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><b style=""><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">REVIEW OF LITERATURE AND Hypotheses</span></span></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><b style=""><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Previous research</span></span></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">This research is based on earlier research conducted by Wayne et.al (1999).</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">The survey was conducted on a large scale corporate business units located throughout the United States.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">The result, indicated limited support for the contest-mobility norm (human capital and motivation) and stronger support for the sponsored-mobility norm (supervisor support and mentoring) to achieve career success.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">In particular show of interest of support provided by the direct supervisor on the dimensions of subjective and objective career success.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">This study uses the same variables namely human capital, motivation, and supervisor support as independent variables and career success as the dependent variable.</span></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b style=""><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Career Success</span></span></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">His career as a network of separate but related work, which provides continuity, order, and meaning in life.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Career not only in relation to individuals who have high-status jobs or are getting faster progress, but shows a series of jobs / positions held by employees during working life regardless of job level or organizational level.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Careers can also be defined as the networks and groups, and experiences relating to the work and activities that are influenced by the attitudes and behavior of individuals within the organization.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">So the components of the career is the attitude, behavior, and networks working on sustainable activities, activities undertaken and the beginning of the work and decided to quit his job (Noe, 2000).</span></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">New to the concept often associated with the protean career career (DT Hall, 1996 in Noe, 2000).</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">According to Hall protean career is a career driven individual and not by the organization.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Employees experiencing a change in interests, abilities, values adopted and the work environment.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Each employee has a responsibility to manage their careers so that they are free to be creative in accordance with the expertise and skills that they develop themselves.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Organizations must provide sufficient space for workers in developing the ability to be more productive and have greater commitment to company goals.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">As such the company plays a role in providing the environment and opportunities for career development.</span></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">One's career success is measured by salary and promotion.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">As well as the more traditional career-high position held, income earned by more and more.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">The point is that one's career goals related to the outcome to be achieved such as: salary, promotion, and improvement of skills.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">So that meant career success is the satisfaction of employees on career and salary earned and subjective selection of superiors to subordinates promotions.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Indicators of career success can be viewed subjectively and objectively.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">The objective of salary.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">In the study did not measure the salary as an indicator of career success because each company has its own salary standards tailored to the financial ability and his company.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">A change in paradigm and a career path toward a more diverse career makes the mindset of employees to change his career goal that is more psychological lead to success.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Psychological success is feeling proud of the achievements obtained by the person as an important goal in life is achieved is not limited to job performance.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Psychological success depends on employees' perception of looking at his career rather than on what he has been received from companies such as salary and promotion.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">They do not want a status symbol but rather the flexibility of work assignments and recognition of the firm (Noe, 2000).</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">With the increasing choice of a variety of jobs and the demands of technology development, career success will depend on the ability of workers to perform a variety in the future.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">They only work with one skill would risk his job.</span></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b style=""><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Career Satisfaction</span></span></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Employees are social beings who become primary asset for any company (Hasibuan, Malay SP., 2002).</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">They become planners, implementers, and controllers which always plays an active role in achieving corporate goals.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Employees become actors who support the achievement of goals, have thoughts, feelings and desires that could affect the attitude-his attitude toward work.</span></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Individual's career satisfaction is a feeling of fulfillment and satisfaction with his career, which can be measured with the payment of salaries and professional development.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Employees who prefer to enjoy the satisfaction of his career would prefer the job than the fringe benefits even though the remuneration is important.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Measure the absolute level of satisfaction does not exist because each is different standards of individual employee satisfaction.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Employee career satisfaction influenced factors such as: fringe benefits of fair and reasonable, appropriate placement in accordance with the expertise, severity of employment, work atmosphere and environment, the attitude of the leadership (Flasibuan, Malay SP., 2002).</span></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Career success can be viewed subjectively or objectively.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Objectively, career advancement can be measured by salary and promotion.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Subjectively, a career is defined as an individual sense of achievement and career Based on the above definition, subjective indicators of employee satisfaction is a report of his career that includes salary increases, and professional development.</span></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b style=""><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Campaign Assessment</span></span></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">After the employee received, issued and subsequently hired the supervisor task is to conduct employee performance appraisals.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">With significant achievements peni1ain subordinates and superiors attention and prompted them eager to work, so long as honest and objective assessment process and there is follow-up of employees will be encouraged to work vigorous, passionate, disciplined, and accomplished the work so the company can optimally be achieved.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Follow-up assessments enables employees promoted, didemosikan, developed and / or reply to his services increased.</span></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Assessment is an evaluation of a systematic campaign against the movement that increase the authority and responsibility of employees to a higher position in an organization so that the obligations, rights, status and income is even greater.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Promotion assessment provides an important role for every employee even dream that always awaited.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">With the assessment promotion, it means there is trust and recognition of skills and kecekapan the employee to occupy a higher office.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">With the promotion which will give social status, authority, responsibility, and greater income for employees.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">An opportunity campaigns assessment will also encourage the withdrawal of more and more applicants who enter her application so that procurement is good for the company's employees will be easier.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Conversely, if relatively little promotion assessment or not there is the morale, morale, discipline, work, and employees' performance will decrease, so that withdrawal and procurement employees increasingly difficult for the company concerned (Hasibuan, Malay SP., 2002).</span></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b style=""><span lang="EN-GB">Human Capital</span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">In the theory of human capital in a rational worker rnembuat choices about investment of capital it has.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Individuals make rational choices or want to invest more time, effort, and money in education, training, and experience.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Workers will consider the benefits of knowing the costs and rewards to be gained.</span></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">In the contest-mobility norm, investments should be able to increase the rewards and the company includes an increase in salary.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">One investment is education.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Based on human capital theory of education employees merely as an option, because they want to further increase its capital investment.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Research dilkukan by Tharenou, Latimer, and Conroy (1994) shows that education has a positive relationship with managerial level and promotion studies (Sheridan, I 997 in Wayne et al., 1999).</span></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Time is a series of events that have occurred or in the distant past.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Left-term plan involves short, medium, and long term.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Almost all managers use time and energy to make interaction with others, both from within and outside the organization.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">The working hours or years of service in an organization is seen as an investment in human capital.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Where years of service in a relatively old organization that allows employees to receive training, develop skills and gain more experience and the new employee (Wayne et al, 1999).</span></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Business is an activity to exert power in hopes of getting better.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">An organization must have an effort to encourage employees to achieve career success The employees are always working in every opportunity that exists and more effort in performing the task will produce a good performance that will </span></span><span style=""> </span><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">produce an award from the company that ultimately the employees will be promoted.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Management has one of the six elements of money (money).</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Here is a nominal amount of money that is used by companies to finance education, training and development.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Workers will consider the benefits of knowing the cost and rewards to be gained.</span></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Ability and human capital is an important factor in the promotion of each employee levels at the beginning of his career, but not so important when the longstanding career.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">They think that getting the support and the superior is more important when the longstanding career.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Intelejensi important cognitive abilities and the progress in the beginning of his career so employees do not have experience in the early karimya, sponsor (boss) will be important when the longstanding career.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Organization of the individuals who have a high level of human capital (eg, employees with higher education, tenure and tenure in the organization longer and more training).</span></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b style=""><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Motivation</span></span></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Motivating is an activity that resulted, distribute, and maintain human behavior.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Motivation is an important subject for managers, because by definition, managers have to work with and through others.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Managers need to understand certain people behave Facebook to affect it to work in accordance with the desired organization.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">People will be motivated to try if the hopes and efforts will increase the performance and will provide valuable results (Katzel] and Thompson, 1990).</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">If workers believe that with good performance will provide intrinsic and extrinsic rewards, they will work harder in completing the given task-ugas.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Expectancy theory assumes that employees allocate their behavior demands of the anticipated consequences of actions.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Workers assess the information available to them and make decisions according to personal values and the possible consequences to achieve what they like.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">At its core is that workers are motivated to run a high level of effort if it believed the level of effort will give a good assessment.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">A good assessment will encourage the company to provide bonuses, raises, and promotions that will satisfy the objectives of the workers.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Variables consist of career planning motivation and desire to increase or mobility.</span></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">An ambition to achieve a higher ranking has a positive relationship with career satisfaction.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Employees who have a strong desire to increase the prospect that the time and effort used to achieve those goals.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Flat organizational structure that provides little opportunity for employee promotions.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Meanwhile, according to Herzberg if you want to motivate people in the work suggests to focus on achievement, recognition, responsibility and growth.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">This is a characteristic that some people are intrinsically valuable.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">The desire to increase the intention is a desire to achieve better results than ever before.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">The desire to increase and be associated with promotabilitas assessment, employee motivation is valued by the organization within the confines of the increase in salaries and viewed positively by supervisors that affects promotabilitas evaluation of employees.</span></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Career planning model career planning is to establish, implement in career goals and strive to achieve those goals.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Based on the model of psychological success, goal setting can increase the effort spent in achieving its objectives.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Career planning should be followed by efforts to implement a career plan, so that career planning has a positive relationship with salary and career involvement.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Mi opinion is supported by Aryee and Yaw (1993) that career planning has an indirect relationship with career satisfaction and commitment through career strategy, the process of implementing a career plan.</span></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Career planning can be a key factor achieving career success.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Therefore, planning should consider the need for flexibility, to be able to adapt to new circumstances as soon as possible.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Planning must be an active, dynamic, sustainable, and creative, so management will not only react to their environment, but rather become an active participant in the business world.</span></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b style=""><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Support Tops</span></span></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Sponsored norm-mobi1ity are circumstances in which individuals receive special attention and several senior managers including the sponsor.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">They say that workers who receive support and guidance about the career of the next boss will be selected and promoted.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Leader-member exchange and mentoring is a variable of supervisor support.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Leader-member exchange is a form of quality relationships between superiors and subordinates.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Emotional boss is a characteristic and a superior relationship with a subordinate (Liden, Sparrowe, and Wayne, I 997 in Wayne et al, 1999).</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Quality 1eader member high exchange involving trust, support, and interaction between superiors and subordinates (Dienesch and Liden, 1986 in Wayne et a1, 1999).</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Leader-member exchange theory to explain how the boss to use his power in the company to build reciprocal relationships that are different from each of his subordinates.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">According Graen (1975) The leader has a different behavior with each of his followers and the differences that occur must be analyzed separately.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Leader-member exchange theory also called the vertical dyad linkage theory which also explains that the vertical relationships between superiors and subordinates have the relationships that have mutual influence.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Bosses are not only demanding on subordinates to improve performance, but also provides decent benefits in accordance with an agreed standard.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Subordinates who have leader-member exchange quality is high with his boss will give a good contribution when compared to subordinates who have a low quality with the boss (in Wayne et a1, 1999).</span></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Mentoring is a strong working relationship between senior (mentor) and junior (trained) in an organization.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Mentors are people who have experience and power which will provide advice, training, promotion, and advice in career development.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Promotion of careers can occur directly through the promotion of real or indirectly through the influence and power and control the mentor to the members of the organization.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Mentors are people who offer informal career guidance.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Employees or mentor within the company realized that the relationship between them exists and is useful for career development.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">When the mentor can nominate employees for career development activities such as training programs, transfer, or promotion then he became a sponsor.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">A sponsor is a person in which to create career development opportunities for others.</span></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Mentoring has a positive relationship with the need or the performance of his career, including salary and promotions (Dreher and Ash, 1990).</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Kram and Isabella (1985) identifies two functions of mentoring relationships and career development and psychosocial support.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">In career development, mentoring will provide a challenging work, training, and provide protection.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Career development focusing on protege career.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">As part of the psycho-social support acts as a mentor protege convinced of something valuable in itself and provide guidance.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Psycho-social support influence in a more personal protege, such as personal development and protege ability to have a closer emotional ties between them (in Wayne et al., 1999).</span></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;"><span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Implementation of career plans career development needs.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Career development is one's personal efforts of employees to achieve a career plan.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">The starting point of career development starts from the employees themselves.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Each person is responsible for the development or career advancement.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">To help employees set career goals and determine the right career path the company offers career guidance.</span> <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% transparent; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Advisors (counselors) may only need to listen to employees' interests and providing specific job information.</span> <span style="background-image: none; background-repeat: repeat; background-attachment: scroll; background-position: 0% 0%; -moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-origin: padding; -moz-background-size: auto auto; border: 0pt none; font-size: 100%; margin: 0pt; outline: 0pt none; padding: 0pt; vertical-align: baseline; display: inline;">Advisors can also help employees to reveal their interests by conducting tests and interpret the talent and skills.</span></span></span></p>Al-Mansor Abu saidhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09355698983918954375noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8427095828809940450.post-69681163872677166582010-11-17T23:15:00.001-08:002010-11-17T23:25:57.259-08:00DETERMINANTS OF ACEDEMICIAN CAREER SUCCESSThis study aims to determine the effect of organizational career management, individual career management and the competence of employee on career success of academic staff at Research University in Malaysia. The primary data used in this study is organizational career management, individual career management, competency and career success of academic staffs. The sample in this study amounted to 280 employees from various area of lecturer within the Research University organization. Data analysis in this study using multiple linear regression analysis using SPSS software. Based on literature review known that organizational career management individual career management and employee competency has posit a positive impact on employee career success of Research University in Malaysia. That mean the level of employee career success will increase if the level of organizational career management, individual career management and competence increases.Al-Mansor Abu saidhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09355698983918954375noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8427095828809940450.post-66445947677944703232010-10-25T07:52:00.000-07:002010-10-25T07:53:38.405-07:00STATISTICAL ANALYSIS: NONPARAMETRIC TESTS<span style="font-weight: bold;">Advantages and Disadvantages of Nonparametric Tests</span><br />The tests of statistical significance discussed in the two previous sections are known as parametric statistics. A parameter, you will recall, is a population score, whereas a statistic is a score for a sample randomly drawn from the population. Parametric statistics make certain assumptions about population parameters. One assumption is that the scores in the population are normally distributed about the mean; another assumption is that the population variances of the comparison groups in one’s study are approximately equal. When large deviations from these assumptions are present in the research data, parametric statistics should not be used. Instead, one of the nonparametric statistics should be selected since, as their name implies, they do not make any assumptions about the shape or variance of population scores.<br /><br />Parametric statistics assume that the scores being analyzed are derived from a measure that has equal intervals. The student will recall from our discussion in the previous chapter that most continuous scores meet this criterion. When scores are dichotomous or in the form of categories or ranks, one of the nonparametric statistics should be used for data analysis. In the next sections we shall discuss the common types of nonparametric statistics used to analyze data in the form of ranks, frequency counts, or dichotomies.<br /><br />When research data meet the assumption of being interval scores but do not meet the assumptions of normal distribution and variance homogeneity, it is still advisable to use one of the parametric statistics presented earlier in the chapter. The main reasons for recommending the use of parametric statistics in these situations are that: (1) studies have shown that moderate departure from the theoretical assumptions has very little effect upon the value of the parametric technique; (2) nonparametric statistics are generally less powerful, that is, they require larger samples in order to yield the same level of significance, and (3) for many of the problems encountered in educational research, suitable non-parametric tests are not available.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">The Chi-Square Test</span><br />Chi-square (x2) is a nonparametric statistical test that is used when the research data are in the form of frequency counts. These frequency counts can be placed into two or more categories. Chi-square was used to investigate one of the objectives of the test-anxiety study by Culler and Holahan. This objective involved replicating previous research findings that high test anxiety is associated with a decrement in CPA.<br /><br />The researchers formed two categories of CPA: 2.00 or higher, and 1.99 or lower. The reason for splitting GPA,i a continuous variable, into two categories is that “a GPA of 2.00 (On a scale of 0—4) is generally considered a cutoff for success in college, since it is a requirement for graduation.”21 After forming the two categories, the researchers counted the number of high test-anxious and low test-anxious students who fell into each category. The frequency counts are shown in table l3.6. Next, the frequency counts were converted to percentages. For example, 19 high test-anxious students had GPAs lower than 2.00. The total number of high test-anxious students is 65. Nineteen divided by 65 is 29 percent, as shown in table 13.6.<br /><br />The percentages indicate clearly that high test-anxious students are much dren is a discrete variable (because a family can have 3 or 4 children but not 3½). Appearance before juvenile court is similarly a situation that has either occurred or not occurred and is also discrete. Under these conditions, chi-square is the appropriate test of statistical significance.<br />Chi-square is equally useful. when the traits or characteristics being considered are actually continuous variables that have been categorized. This was the case with the CPA scores used in the chi-square analysis shown in table 13.6. CPA is a continuous variable because GPAs can take on any value within a given range (in this study, between 0.00 and 4.00). The researchers were justified in transforming CPA into a categorical variable, though, because each category has personal and social significance: failure versus success in college coursework.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">Other Nonparametric Tests</span><br />Of the nonparametric tests of significance, chi-square is probably the most frequently used by educational researchers in causal-comparative studies. Other non-parametric tests are sometimes used, particularly when the research data are in the form of rant-order scores or interval scores that grossly violate the parametric test assumptions of normality and homogeneity of variance.<br /><br />The Mann-Whitney U test can be used to determine whether the distributions of scores of two independent samples differ significantly from each other. If U is statistically significant, it means that the “bulk” of scores in one population is higher than the bulk of scores in the other population. The two populations are represented by the two independent samples on which the U test is made.<br /><br />The Wilcoxon signed-rank test is used to determine whether the distributions of scores in two samples differ significantly from each other when the scores of the samples are correlated (either through matching or because repeated measures are taken on the same sample). The Wilcoxon test is analogous to the t test for correlated means except that it makes no assumptions regarding the shape of the score distribution or homogeneity of variance between the two sets of scores. if more than two groups of subjects are to be compared, a nonparametric one-way analysis of variance (the Kruskal-WaLlis test) can be used.Al-Mansor Abu saidhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09355698983918954375noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8427095828809940450.post-46318265146299241822010-10-25T05:55:00.001-07:002010-10-25T05:56:22.789-07:00THE THESIS OR DISSERTATION<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:compatibility> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> </w:Compatibility> <w:browserlevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0in; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]--> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB">In carrying out your review of the literature, you will observe that all research articles are organized in essentially the same manner. Theses and dissertations follow this same organizational pattern, but because they are less restricted in length, some topics are covered more thoroughly than in the published research article. Figure 21.1 is an outline giving the usual organization of the thesis or dissertation. Some variations in this outline will be found in the requirements of different universities.</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB">Students often wait until all data have been collected and all analysis has been completed before starting to write their thesis or dissertation. It is more efficient; though, for the student to prepare some portions of the research report much earlier. It seems to be an almost inevitable features of research that the student encounters some periods when she is extremely busy and some periods when she must sit and wait. These lulls in the research routine can be used profitably by the student to prepare drafts of the first chapters of her report.</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB">Most students find that the easiest way to prepare a well-organized research report is to outline carefully each section before starting to write it. This outline may start merely as a listing of all major points that you wish to discuss in the ‘section. These major points can then be placed in what appears to be the most logical order, and finally the topics to be discussed under each subheading can be added to the outline. A well-thought-out set of subheadings helps the reader a great deal in understanding the organization of the report and the nature of the research project.</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB">If you have followed good procedure in planning and carrying out the study, you will have many guides for organizing the report. For example, the research proposal which is prepared early in the research sequence will contain a detailed statement of the problem arid hypotheses that can be filled out quickly to become part of the introductory chapter of the thesis or dissertation.</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b style=""><span lang="EN-GB">Stylistic Considerations</span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB">When you are ready to start writing the thesis, you should obtain specific information concerning the format required at your university. This information usually can be obtained from the research committee chairman or from the dean of the graduate school.</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><b style=""><span lang="EN-GB">Figure 21.1</span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><b style=""><span lang="EN-GB">Organization of the thesis or dissertation</span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><b style=""><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b style=""><u><span lang="EN-GB">Preliminary Materials </span></u></b></p> <ol style="margin-top: 0in;" start="1" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB">Title page</span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB">Preface and Acknowledgments</span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB">Table of contents</span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB">List of tables</span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB">List of figures</span></li></ol> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b style=""><u><span lang="EN-GB">Body of the Paper</span></u></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b style=""><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b style=""><span lang="EN-GB">Chapter 1. Introduction</span></b></p> <ol style="margin-top: 0in;" start="1" type="a"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB">General Statement oi the problem</span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB">Statement of the hypotheses, objectives, or questions</span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB">Definition of terms</span></li></ol> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b style=""><span lang="EN-GB">Chapter 2. Review of the Literature</span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p> <ol style="margin-top: 0in;" start="1" type="a"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB">Review of previous research</span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB">Pertinent opinion</span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB">Summary of the state of the art</span></li></ol> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b style=""><span lang="EN-GB">Chapter 3. Method</span></b></p> <ol style="margin-top: 0in;" start="1" type="a"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB">Description of subjects</span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB">Research design and procedures</span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB">Description of measures employed</span></li></ol> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b style=""><span lang="EN-GB">Chapter 4. Findings</span></b></p> <ol style="margin-top: 0in;" start="1" type="a"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB">Overview of statistical procedures</span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB">Description of findings pertinent to each hypothesis, objective, or question</span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB">Other findings</span></li></ol> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b style=""><span lang="EN-GB">Chapter 5. Summary and Discussion</span></b></p> <ol style="margin-top: 0in;" start="1" type="a"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB">Summary of research problem, method, and findings</span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB">Conclusions</span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB">Implications</span></li></ol> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB">Reference Materials</span></p> <ol style="margin-top: 0in;" start="1" type="a"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB">Bibliography</span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-GB">Appendix</span></li></ol><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:compatibility> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> </w:Compatibility> <w:browserlevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0in; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]--><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman";" lang="EN-GB">Some universities prepare a style manual for graduate students; others refer the student to one or more of the published style manuals, It is often helpful to ask the committee chairman to refer you to two or three outstanding theses or dissertations in education recently completed at your institution. An examination of these reports, along with the prescribed style manual, will give you most of the information that you need to meet the style and format requirements. A study of the organization, method of presentation, and language used in these’ reports will also give you some idea of the sort of thesis or dissertation that your chairman considers superior. As your own report will probably be subjected to the same criteria used by the chairman to evaluate previous reports, this information can be very helpful to you</span>Al-Mansor Abu saidhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09355698983918954375noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8427095828809940450.post-45089872167457488312010-10-21T17:45:00.001-07:002010-10-21T18:01:44.896-07:00SAMPLING METHODSAMPLING METHOD<br />Basically allows information obtained from sampling a larger group. Larger group is known as a population. For example, we want to know the opinions of university students of the Universities and university colleges. The entire community is a population of university students. Parts of the overall student selected for this study were a sample. Students are selected is known as an element in the sample.<br /><br />Several types of sampling designs are often used in research. The types of different designs used to reduce sampling error. These designs are simple random sampling, stratified random sampling, systematic sampling and sampling groups.<br /><br />There are four types of probability sampling. Basis for selecting each one is dependent on the research problem. For example, the sampling frame in terms of availability of a good level of accuracy is required and the most suitable method to obtain the data. All four of the sampling probability is a) Simple random sampling b) Stratified random sampling c) Sampling of groups and d) Systematic sampling<br /><br />Simple random sampling is the most basic sampling. Sampling is the basis on which to design other sampling. A simple random sampling is used to ensure that every individual has equal opportunity for employment or to be used to represent the population. This means that other sampling designs must be based on random sampling. Among the benefits are carrying out random sampling.<br /><br />Stratified random sampling can be used for the population of non-uniform (heterogeneous). It is also suitable for use if researchers want to compare among several sub-populations. Simple random sampling can not be used to take samples from a population if the population is not uniform. This is because a simple random sample does not represent the layers that exist in the population.<br /><br />Cluster sampling is suitable if there are elements in the population is scattered (heterogeneous) at a time when studies are being conducted. Sampling of the group will involve the distribution of population groups with each group may reflect the study population and can be done by the researchers. The aim of the sampling group is because there are inconsistencies in the critical elements in the group, but there is uniformity among all groups.<br /><br />Systematic random sampling technique is a technique that is relatively easy and simple to implement. Systematic sampling requires a complete sampling frame. Let say, if we want to take a sample of 50 households from 250 households located in an area. This means we have a sampling frame of 250 households. If we need a sample of 50 households, the individual elements are selected for every 5 members (250/50 = 5). As a first step, researchers need to choose a random element. Suppose the first number is chosen at random is the fifth element. So the next household was 10, 15, 20, 25 and so on until the selected 50 items selected as subjects in the sample.<br /><br />Sometimes there are circumstances which do not allow researchers run the probability of sampling species. This may all probability sampling is not practical to be used for certain studies. If there were such circumstances it is possible for researchers to use non-probability sampling.<br /><br />Sometimes there are circumstances which do not allow researchers run the probability of sampling species. This may all probability sampling is not practical to be used for certain studies. If there were such circumstances it is possible for researchers to use non-probability sampling. Non-probability sampling techniques are usually used when there is no sampling frame or have no target to make the study population. In between the good non-probability sampling is that it is easier to perform and less expensive in terms of cost. However, conclusions or generalizations of the population parameter can not be done. Method of hypothesis testing through statistical inference can not be done on the data. This is because researchers can not determine the degree of accuracy and degree of confidence in the findings. However, non-probability sampling is more suitable for exploratory research, descriptive study that aims to give a rough about the phenomenon that exists in the population study and a guide to researchers who are more in-depth later. Among the non-probability samplings are: convenience sampling, judgment considerations, and quota sampling.<br /><br /><br />SAMPLING METHOD<br />Pada asasnya persampelan membolehkan maklumat diperoleh daripada kumpulan yang lebih besar. Kumpulan yang lebih besar ini dikenali sebagai populasi. Misalnya, kita ingin mengetahui pendapat pelajar universiti terhadap Akta Universiti dan kolej universiti. Keseluruhan komuniti pelajar universiti ini merupakan populasi. Sebahagian daripada keseluruhan pelajar yang dipilih dalam kajian adalah merupakan sampel. Pelajar yang dipilih itu dikenali sebagai elemen di dalam sampel.<br /><br />Beberapa jenis rekabentuk persampelan sering digunakan dalam penyelidikan. Jenis-jenis rekabentuk yang berlainan digunakan bagi mengurangkan ralat persampelan. Rekabentuk-rekabentuk tersebut ialah persampelan rawak mudah, persampelan rawak berlapis, persampelan kelompok dan persampelan sistematik.<br />Terdapat empat jenis persampelan kebarangkalian. Asas kepada pemilihan setiap satu adalah bergantung kepada permasalahan kajian. Sebagai contoh dari segi kedapatan rangka persampelan yang baik tingkat kejituan yang diperlukan dan kaedah yang paling sesuai untuk mendapatkan data. Keempat-empat persampelan kebarangkalian itu adalah:<br />a) Persampelan rawak mudah<br />b) Persampelan rawak berlapis<br />c) Persampelan kelompok<br />d) Persampelan sistematik<br /><br />Persampelan rawak mudah merupakan persampelan yang paling asas. Persampelan ini menjadi dasar kepada rekabentuk persampelan yang lain. Persampelan rawak mudah memastikan setiap individu mempunyai peluang yang sama untuk diambil atau untuk digunakan bagi mewakili populasi. Ini bermakna rekabentuk persampelan yang lain mestilah dilakukan berasaskan persampelan rawak mudah. Di antara faedah menjalankan persampelan rawak mudah adalah.<br /><br />Persampelan rawak berlapis sesuai digunakan bagi populasi yang tidak seragam (heterogenous). Ia juga sesuai digunakan jika penyelidik ingin membuat perbandingan di antara beberapa sub-populasi. Persampelan rawak mudah tidak boleh digunakan untuk mengambil sampel daripada sesuatu populasi sekiranya populasi itu tidak seragam. Ini adalah kerana sampel rawak mudah tidak mewakili lapisan-lapisan yang wujud dalam populasi.<br /><br />Persampelan Kelompok<br />Kaedah ini sesuai jika elemen-elemen yang terdapat di dalam populasi adalah berselerak (heterogegous) pada ketika kajian sedang dilakukan. Persampelan kelompok akan melibatkan pembahagian populasi kepada sebanyak kelompok yang mungkin dengan setiap kelompok mencerminkan populasi kajian dan boleh dilakukan oleh penyelidik. Tujuan melakukan persampelan kelompok adalah kerana terdapat ketidakseragaman unsure-unsur di dalam kelompok tetapi terdapat keseragaman di antara semua kelompok.<br /><br />Persampelan Sistematik<br />Teknik persampelan rawak bersistem adalah suatu teknik yang agak mudah dan ringkas bagi melaksanakannya. Persampelan sistematik memerlukan rangka persampelan yang lengkap. Sebagai contoh, jika kita ingin mengambil sampel 50 isirumah daripada 250 isirumah yang terdapat di dalam sesuatu kawasan. Ini bermakna kita mempunyai rangka persampelan sebanyak 250 isirumah. Jika kita memerlukan 50 isirumah sebagai sampel maka setiap unsur yang dipilih adalah setiap selang 5 orang (250/50 = 5). Sebagai langkah permulaan, penyelidik perlu memilih satu unsur secara rawak. Katakan nombor yang pertama yang dipilih secara rawak adalah unsure yang kelima. Maka isirumah yang seterusnya adalah 10, 15, 20, 25 dan seterusnya sehinggalah terpilih 50 unsur yang terpilih sebagai subjek dalam sampel.<br /><br />Kadang-kala terdapat beberapa keadaan yang tidak memungkinkan penyelidik menjalankan persampelan jenis kebarangkalian. Ini mungkin kesemua persampelan kebarangkalian itu tidak praktikal untuk digunakan untuk kajian-kajian yang tertentu. Jika terdapat keadaan sedemikian maka adalah mungkin bagi penyelidik menggunakan persampelan bukan kebarangkalian.<br /><br />Kadang-kala terdapat beberapa keadaan yang tidak memungkinkan penyelidik menjalankan persampelan jenis kebarangkalian. Ini mungkin kesemua persampelan kebarangkalian itu tidak praktikal untuk digunakan untuk kajian-kajian yang tertentu. Jika terdapat keadaan sedemikian maka adalah mungkin bagi penyelidik menggunakan persampelan bukan kebarangkalian. Teknik persampelan bukan kebarangkalian ini biasanya digunakan apabila tidak terdapat rangka persampelan atau tidak terdapat populasi sasaran untuk dibuat kajian. Di antara kebaikan persampelan bukan kebarangkalian adalah ianya adalah lebih mudah dilaksanakan serta lebih murah dari segi kosnya. Bagaimanapun kesimpulan atau generalisasi terhadap parameter populasi tidak dapat dilakukan. Kaedah pengujian hipotesis melalui statistik inferensi juga tidak dapat dilakukan terhadap data yang diperolehi. Ini kerana penyelidik tidak dapat menentukan darjah darjah ketepatan dan keyakinan terhadap dapatan kajian. Walau bagaimanapun persampelan bukan kebarangkalian adalah sesuai digunakan dalam penyelidik penerokaan, deskriptif dan kajian yang bertujuan untuk memberi gambaran kasar tentang fenomena yang wujud dalam populasi kajian dan menjadi panduan kepada penyelidik yang lebih mendalam nanti. Di antara persampelan bukan kebarangkalian adalah:<br />o Persampelan selesa<br />o Persampelan pertimbangan<br />o Persampelan koutaAl-Mansor Abu saidhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09355698983918954375noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8427095828809940450.post-54924249662238655502010-10-20T18:19:00.001-07:002010-10-20T19:31:34.859-07:00Theory of Planned Behavior is the order of the theoretical reason of action, which takes into account the control of behavior is seen. According to this theory, a person will only perform his intention when he felt able to control the action. Control feels that the perception of difficulty varies according to the behavior. This perception is based on reflection and the experience of a barrier or barriers to perform the behavior. Ajzen (1980) concluded that the importance of perceived control (perceived control) to determine the relationship between attitudes and behavior has been demonstrated in several empirical studies. This study supports the hypothesis that is, those with high control will have a strong intention to perform a certain behavior and will do so when the state deemed appropriate. Both of these theories assume that behavior is the result of the decision noticed for acting in accordance with certain behaviors. For example, if someone should make a choice between two forms of treatment, he will process the information about the treatment. He will take into account the characteristics of the object or situation, in a manner consistent with the behavior and the advantages and disadvantages of such behavior. Everything will be processed by the cognitive. However, there is also a behavior that is spontaneous. This occurs when the motivation and the level of awareness is low.<br /><br />Teori Tingkah Laku Terancang adalah urutan kepada teori reason of action, iaitu mengambil kira kawalan ke atas tingkah laku yang dilihat. Menurut teori ini, seseorang hanya akan melaksanakan niatnya apabila dia merasakan mampu mengawal pelaksanaan tindakan tersebut. Kawalan yang dirasakannya itu adalah pelbagai mengikut persepsi kesukaran melakukan tingkah laku tersebut. Persepsi ini adalah berdasarkan refleksi pengalaman seseorang dan juga halangan atau rintangan bagi melakukan tingkah laku tersebut. Ajzen (1980) menyimpulkan bahawa, kepentingan kawalan yang dirasakan (perceived control) dalam menentukan hubungan antara sikap dan tingkah laku telah dibuktikan dalam beberapa kajian empirikal. Kajian ini menyokong hipotesis iaitu, mereka yang mempunyai kawalan yang tinggi akan mempunyai niat yang kuat untuk melakukan tingkah laku tertentu dan akan melakukannya apabila keadaan dirasakan sesuai. Kedua-dua teori ini mengandaikan tingkah laku adalah hasil daripada keputusan yang disedari untuk bertindak mengikut gelagat tertentu. Sebagai contoh, apabila seseorang perlu membuat pilihan antara dua bentuk perlakuan, maka beliau akan memproses maklumat tentang perlakuan tersebut. Beliau akan mengambil kira ciri objek atau situasi, sikap yang sesuai dengan gelagat tersebut dan keburukan serta kebaikan atas gelagat tersebut. Semuanya akan diproses secara kognitif. Namun, terdapat juga tingkah laku yang dilakukan secara spontan. Keadaan ini berlaku apabila motivasi dan tahap kesedaran adalah rendah.Al-Mansor Abu saidhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09355698983918954375noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8427095828809940450.post-72894206619378637632010-10-13T05:28:00.001-07:002010-10-13T05:28:48.516-07:00Adult Learning2.0 Introduction<br />This chapter consists of two parts. The first section discusses<br />some important aspects relating to adult learning, particularly<br />non-formal learning. Among them are the definition, purpose, form and<br />location, models of participation and adult learning theory. Talks<br />on several aspects of adult learning in the first chapter<br />aimed to get insights on<br />learning in adults. The second part shows<br />non-formal learning patterns based on findings from the study of<br />earlier.<br />2.1 Adult Learning<br />What is adult learning? As the discipline of adult learning<br />has been developed (Thomas, 2001), especially in Western countries<br />(Mohd Azhar et.al, 2004), there are various definitions of<br />16<br />adult learning that have been advanced by scholars in<br />this field. According to Merriam and Brockett (1997), the first definition<br />for adult learning proposed by Bryson in 1936.<br />Bryson (in Merriam and Brockett, 1997) says study<br />adults are all activities that have a purpose in the context of<br />study carried out in human life. Merriam<br />and Caffarella (1999) present a similar definition as<br />Bryson, saying adult learning as all business<br />systematically with specific goals in order to produce an adult<br />knowledge.<br />Brookfield (1986) also emphasize adult learning is a process<br />personal development to enable adults to have confidence<br />capabilities themselves. If the analysis proposed definition<br />Bryson, and Brookfield above, it can be treated as a definition<br />rather common that describe adult learning. Relative<br />with this, Darkenwald and Merriam (1982:9) put the definition of<br />A more detailed as follows: -<br />"Adult learning is a process where<br />someone who has the status and role<br />adults participating in learning activities that<br />effect changes in knowledge, attitudes, values and<br />skill. "<br />17<br />In addition Darkenwald and Merriam (1982), Rogers (1993:28) also<br />produce a comprehensive definition of adult learning, namely: -<br />"All of learning opportunities are planned and<br />a particular purpose prepared to<br />individuals who are recognized and to recognize their<br />as adults in civil society and<br />have left the formal education system. Opportunities<br />learning as there is a formal or informal<br />should provide guidance to adults<br />decision-making process, using<br />methodologies and approaches that are appropriate to<br />experience of adults to achieve the goals and<br />their needs. "<br />Although Darkenwald and Merriam and Rogers present definition<br />fairly comprehensive, but to Merriam and Brockett (1997) definition<br />The best of adult learning have been proposed by Houle at<br />1972. According to Houle (1972), adult learning is<br />planning process undertaken by individuals or agencies for<br />improvement or development of individual, group and overall<br />members of the public.<br />While Merriam and Brockett said the definition of learning<br />Houle adults raised by the best, they have also<br />put forward their own definition in an attempt to explain<br />adult learning as follows: -<br />"Adult Learning is designed activities<br />specifically for the purpose of the learning process among<br />18<br />those with age, social roles or<br />self-perception can be defined as a person<br />dewasa” (ms:8).<br />In the Malaysian context, the Mazanah and Norhayati (1997) refers<br />adult learning as learning opportunities that followed<br />by adults outside the formal school system.<br />There are several other terms that have the same meaning<br />adult learning. Use those terms to exchange<br />replace them with adult learning. For example, Darkenwald and<br />Merriam (1982) relate to the education of adult learning<br />extension, community education, continuing education, education<br />Repeated, human resource development, training and andragogy.<br />While Merriam and Brockett (1997) also associate learning<br />adults with the terms of lifelong education, permanent education and<br />recurrent education. The term extension education, education<br />advanced and widely used community education in America<br />Company (Merriam and Mazanah, 2001), while the rest of the education<br />of life, recurrent education is a term popularized by<br />UNESCO in the 1970's (Merriam and Brockett, 1997).<br />Based on the above definitions, in short, an adult learning<br />are all learning activities are devoted to the<br />19<br />adults. In this study, the use of the word learning and<br />educational exchange in the context of compensation for<br />adults, these two terms mean the same<br />the process of acquiring knowledge and skills among adults.<br />The question is whether the purpose of adult learning? The next section<br />discuss learning goals based on the writings of<br />was found in the literature.<br />2.2 Adult Learning Objectives<br />By Ruud and Preece (2005), the potential for adult learning is not<br />extent of literacy or basic education, but the purpose of learning<br />adults reaching more than that. So, what is the purpose of learning<br />adults? Several authors have submitted the purpose of learning<br />adults who show the differences between each other. Mazanah<br />(2001) emphasized the differences caused by the adult learning goal<br />and historical context of adult learning is different from one country<br />with other countries. For example, Rogers (1993) says the purpose of<br />adult learning in developing countries to meet the needs of<br />social and economic development. While for developed countries, the<br />adult learning is aimed at providing human resources<br />who are knowledgeable and efficient.<br />20<br />According to Merriam and Caffarella (1999), the purpose of adult learning<br />constantly changing. For example, based on adult learning<br />religion during the occupation in the mid-18th century in the United States<br />purpose of awakening the people to wake up fight<br />independence. Thirty years later, the adult learning<br />United States seeks to train workers to meet the<br />rapid development of technology. While the adult learning<br />today is to provide human resources to face<br />challenges of globalization and the k-economy (Merriam and Caffarella, 1999).<br />Although many authors have submitted goals of adult learning,<br />but the four goals of adult learning proposed by Titmus<br />(1989) is more comprehensive. The four objectives are: -<br />1. Educational opportunities for the second time - learning<br />available for adults who do not have the opportunity<br />for formal learning.<br />2. Educational role - that of learning<br />allows a role in the social system.<br />3. Vocational education - is education for<br />gain knowledge and skills for<br />employment purposes.<br />21<br />4. Education personal development - is learning<br />for individual development.<br />In the Malaysian context, Mazanah and Norhayati (1997) outlines<br />adult learning goal orientation based on the three following: -<br />1. Vocational orientation - providing skills and<br />knowledge to face challenges in the world<br />jobs.<br />2. Social Orientation - Malaysia's nation building<br />harmonious multi-racial community.<br />3. The orientation of the individual - to help give birth parents,<br />leaders and citizens are among the best<br />people.<br />Overall, adult learning to bring<br />people to change for the better in all aspects of life<br />humans. The purpose of adult learning are summarized by Mohd Azhar et.al<br />(2004: 36) as follows: -<br />"Adult Learning aims to bring about change<br />overall positive in all fields starting<br />the next individual to the community in<br />socially, economically or politically. "<br />22<br />2.3 Location And Shape Adult Learning<br />Learning occurs throughout life (Mohd Azhar et.al, 2004; Mazanah<br />and Carter, 2000, Merriam and Caffarella, 1999) in which adults<br />participate in learning activities in various forms and places.<br />The problem, in which locations for adult learning? According to<br />Livingstone (2000), the three main locations for adult learning is<br />formal learning institutions, the workplace and in society.<br />Consistent with the location of adult learning proposed by<br />Livingstone (2000) above, the three forms of adult learning<br />literature is produced by the most formal education, nonformal<br />and informal (Minnis, 2006; Mazanah, 2001, Merriam and<br />Caffarella, 1999, Merriam and Brockett, 1997: Coombs, et. al, 1973).<br />Although the study focused on non-formal learning, but<br />formal and informal learning are also discussed in depth<br />in this section to identify the differences between each other.<br />Although the three forms of informal adult learning, non-formal and<br />has long been informally introduced in many writings (such as Colley,<br />Hodkinson and Malcolm, 2004; Livingstone, 2000), but the interpretation of<br />clear to all three forms of learning is still not stable and<br />comprehensive. Accordingly, pendebatan of definition<br />23<br />formal learning, non-formal and informal still persist until<br />today, (Colley et.al, 2004). Different interpretations of<br />the three forms of adult learning in the applicable because<br />implementation of adult learning programs in a variety of contexts.<br />In addition, no clear boundaries between formal education, nonformal<br />and informal (Colley et.al, 2004) has also contributed to<br />different interpretations by the various essays in<br />adult learning (Malcolm, Hodkinson and Colley, 2003). Recognizing<br />the difficulty to understand the three forms of learning in<br />above, Tylor (2006) asserts that non-formal learning and<br />informal easier to understand if someone is trying to understand<br />first formal learning.<br />Based on the opinion Tylor above, then the formal learning<br />first discussed in the next section.<br />2.3.1 Formal Education<br />There are some authors who try to define the formal learning<br />These include Minnis (2006), Tylor (2006), Eraut (2004), Mohd<br />Azhar et.al (2004), Malcolm et.al (2003), Livingstone (2000) and Merriam<br />and Caffarella (1999). However, writing about<br />24<br />formal learning at the show the differences between each other<br />as influenced by the context of their writing. For example, Tylor<br />defines formal learning in general, while Eraut<br />provides a description of formal learning from their perspective<br />learning in the workplace. While Livingstone is to define<br />formal learning from the perspective of adult learning and education<br />continued. The following paragraphs present some characteristics of learning<br />formal than some perspective and is followed by a summary<br />of formal learning.<br />From the perspective of a rather general, Tylor (2006) outlines<br />some features of formal learning. Among them are structured in<br />hierarchy in a system operated by the institutions of education and<br />higher education. Minnis (2006) outlines similar to<br />formal education with Tylor. According to Minnis, formal learning<br />is a teacher-centered, bureaucratic and controlled by<br />government. While Livingstone (2000) see informal learning<br />as learning is accompanied by an adult in an institution<br />informal learning recognized by the government. Livingstone next<br />formal learning have emphasized a strong curriculum<br />and the award of a qualification that is recognized by<br />government.<br />25<br />Eraut (2004) also present to explain the five characteristics<br />formal learning, namely: -<br />i. Learning framework that has been set<br />ii. A structured learning program<br />iii. Conducted by teachers appointed<br />iv. Qualification certificates awarded to participants<br />v. Has a specific end goal<br />In Malaysia, formal learning for adults conducted by<br />various institutions of higher learning, colleges and training centers (Mazanah, 2001)<br />whether owned by government or private. Typically, the entry<br />to formal learning institutions require specific academic qualifications<br />and through a rigorous selection process. In addition, tuition fees<br />somewhat higher for formal learning, especially learning<br />operated by private agencies. In general, the definition of<br />formal learning in the Malaysian context is equivalent to the definition<br />of several authors from Western countries such as Tylor (2006), Minnis<br />(2006), Eraut (2004) and Livingstone (2000).<br />Based on the definitions and characteristics of formal learning<br />submitted by the authors as discussed above,<br />kesimpulaannya, formal learning is learning<br />26<br />controlled by formal education institutions through the implementation of the program<br />a structured curriculum that has been drafted in advance.<br />In the context of research, learning in formal learning institutions<br />high and in the workplace more attention from the<br />researchers (Darkenwald and Merriam, 1982) and government (franky<br />et.al, 2005) for more formal learning recognition<br />(Merriam dan Brockett, 1997).<br />2.3.2 Pembelajaran Non-Formal<br />According to Thomas (2001), non-formal learning has a history of<br />long in most countries in the world. However, Thomas<br />explains that the term non-formal education began popularized<br />in the mid 1960's. Next, Thomas asserts that<br />emergence of non-formal learning terms resulting from the need<br />community to a new and different forms of learning<br />existing formal learning. Society requires a form of<br />new learning, such as non-formal learning when they see<br />formal learning is separate (private) and not public property<br />(Minnis, 2006). Accordingly, the Andersson and Andersson (2004)<br />think formal education is sometimes considered not significant<br />27<br />to specific groups when there are many obstacles and restrictions<br />to accompany it.<br />So, what is meant by non-formal learning? According to<br />Merriam and Brockett (2003), the definition of non-formal learning is<br />an issue that is still a subject of debate among educators.<br />The difficulty of defining precisely the non-formal learning<br />is because the overlap that exists between non-formal learning<br />with formal learning (Malcolm et.al, 2003; Coombs, et.al, 1973).<br />Although there are various definitions of non-formal learning in<br />literature, Merriam and Brockett considers the classical definition<br />submitted by Coombs et.al, (1973) is a definition<br />very good and frequent references to other writers.<br />Coombs and Ahmed defines non-formal learning as<br />learning activities are systematically conducted outside of the system<br />formal education to provide specific knowledge to<br />selected groups in a population.<br />Base on the definition of Coombs et.al, (1973), most authors<br />kemudiaannya defines non-formal learning as<br />learning is done outside the school system or<br />formal learning is characterized by a lack of implementation<br />structured, more flexible and responsive to the needs of the community<br />28<br />local (McGiveny, 2002; Stein and Imel, 2002; Mazanah, 2001;<br />Livingstone, 2000, Merriam and Caffarella, 1999, Merriam and Brockett,<br />1997). Department Statisitik Canada (2002) describes the non-formal learning<br />more specifically by saying non-formal learning<br />are all learning activities offered by the social institutions<br />the adult after leaving the formal school system.<br />Equivalent to Position opinions Canadian statistics above, Tylor (2006)<br />add non-formal learning is characterized by the participation<br />volunteers from all walks of life, the conduct in public places<br />by teachers who often do not receive adequate training.<br />While there are many authors (McGiveny, 2002, Stein and email, 2002;<br />Livingstone, 2000, Merriam and Caffarella, 1999, Merriam and Brockett,<br />1997) attempts to explain the non-formal education based on the definition<br />classics of Coombs and Ahmed (1973), but the framework presented<br />by Brennan (1997) found a comprehensive understanding of learning<br />non-formal education. Based on the analysis of the definition put forward by<br />Coombs and Ahmed (1974), Brennan submitted three elements of<br />non-formal education to explain the system, setting and process.<br />29<br />According to Brennan, non-formal learning is a system<br />learning is not centered (Decentralized) and unstructured.<br />Accordingly, non-formal learning in a different control of<br />a community with a community of other (Tylor, 2006). Of<br />element setting, the non-formal learning outside the system operated<br />formal education and are not supervised by the formal education system.<br />Non-formal learning is usually conducted in the physical infrastructure<br />located on the site that requires learning. In<br />context of the process, the teaching of non-formal learning different<br />with formal learning and teaching strategy which<br />learning should be tailored to the needs and culture<br />particularly with regard to students are those who dewas.<br />Based on the three elements of the non-formal learning as<br />discussed above, Brennan (1997) further proposed three forms of<br />non-formal learning that is complementary (complementing), and alternative<br />addition (supplement). Information for all three forms of learning<br />non-formal summarized in Figure 2.1.<br />Complement<br />Non-formal learning complements<br />the learning needs can not<br />met by formal learning<br />Alternative<br />Non-formal learning is a<br />options other than formal learning.<br />30<br />Figure 2.1: The non-formal learning<br />In Malaysia, non-formal learning as the primary<br />development and social change community members (Mazanah, 2001)<br />equivalent to the function of non-formal learning as outlined by<br />Tylor (2006). In addition, non-formal education also plays a role<br />as a place that offers equal opportunities for learning<br />regardless of socio-economic status (Cain, 2002). In short,<br />non-formal learning is an important approach that brings<br />to change individuals, communities and countries.<br />2.3.3 Informal Learning<br />According Marsick and Watkins (2001), informal learning is<br />'Heart' of adult learning. Thus, the term learning<br />informal discipline has long been used in adult learning<br />(Eraut, 2004). Eraut further asserts the term learning<br />introduced informally by some philosophers of education<br />like John Dewey, Kurt Lewin and Merry Parker. However, as<br />Additional<br />Non-formal learning is a<br />In addition to formal learning.<br />Lessons are usually for<br />development of the country that can not<br />met by the formal system<br />31<br />also non-formal learning, informal learning is often terabai,<br />less valued and not given attention in research (Eraut, 2004)<br />not only in Malaysia but in many other countries (franky<br />et.al, 2005).<br />Marsick and Watkins (2001:25), defines informal learning<br />as learning is not classroom-based, unstructured<br />fully controlled and autonomous learning by students. As<br />autonomous learning is controlled entirely by students, then<br />informal learning associated with the learning direction<br />self (self-directed learning). Accordingly, the objectives, content, time,<br />methods and assessment of learning outcomes are determined entirely by students<br />themselves (Livingstone, 2000). One component of informal learning<br />learning is unintentional (accidental learning). Marsick<br />and Watkins defines learning as an unintentional<br />learning that occurs unintentionally and students often<br />not aware that the learning process. Informal learning<br />is part of a very adult learning<br />important for science to meet the challenges and<br />changing environment (Livingstone, 2000).<br />While Colardyn and Bjornavold (2004) defines learning<br />informal learning as a process resulting from activities in<br />32<br />the life of a person in connection with work, family and the<br />field. In accordance with the definitions proposed by Marsick and Watkin<br />(2001), and Bjornavold Colardyn further asserts that<br />informal learning is usually not bersruktur terms of objectives, time and<br />learning support. Consistent with the definition given by<br />Marsick and Watkins (2001), also believes Colardyn and Bjornavold<br />informal learning is usually not noticed and not intentional. By<br />, the in-formal learning does not lead to the award certificate.<br />Briefly dedefinisikan as any informal learning<br />activities that lead to the acquisition of understanding, knowledge<br />and skills that occur outside of formal learning institutions<br />and non-formal. To get a clearer picture of<br />differences in formal education, non-formal and informal, researchers<br />make an analysis on the definition above. Decision analysis<br />shown in Schedule 2.1.<br />Table 2.1: The difference between formal learning, non-formal and<br />informal.<br />Forms of Learning<br />Criteria<br />Formal Non-formal Informal<br />Institution Location<br />formal learning<br />Social institutions Everywhere<br />Participation through elections<br />strict<br />Open User self<br />Less Stringent and regular structures are no structures<br />33<br />Structured<br />Certification Awarded Certificate<br />qualification<br />recognized<br />Usually<br />without certificate<br />Feasibility<br />recognized<br />Without certificate<br />Feasibility<br />Implementation of controlled and supervised by<br />certain entities<br />Without<br />Regulatory<br />clear<br />Without<br />Regulatory<br />direct<br />Less influenced Context<br />by a factor<br />konteksual<br />Very<br />be affected<br />by a factor<br />contextual<br />Very<br />be affected<br />by a factor<br />contextual<br />Autonomy<br />learning<br />Escorted by<br />institutions<br />learning<br />Escorted by<br />students<br />Controlled<br />fully<br />by student<br />Locus<br />escort by<br />students<br />Accidental Intentional and unintentional<br />no<br />deliberate<br />2.4 Participation in Adult Learning Model<br />Participation in learning activities is a complex<br />(Ziegler and Durant, 2001). Accordingly, Ziegler and Durant<br />confirms many authors try to present the framework or model for<br />understand the participation in adult learning. In addition, the<br />Researchers also continue to conduct research to understand why<br />adults make the decision to participate in learning activities<br />(Tylor, in Blunt and Yang, 2002). Because participation in activities<br />learning is a complex, the study of<br />participation continues to receive attention in the field of adult education and<br />further education (Blunt and Yang, 2002: 299).<br />34<br />Because many studies have been conducted to understand the participation of<br />in adult learning, there are several models of participation<br />presented by scholars of adult learning in the literature.<br />According Keintz (2004), the participation of role models to predict whether<br />adults will participate in learning activities or not.<br />By Keintz (2004), models of participation are presented in<br />early stages of development of adult learning is a model of discipline<br />Boshier, Miller and Rubenson model. These models suggest<br />participation in adult learning is influenced by two factors<br />namely (1) internal factors or psychological factors, and (2) external factors<br />or environmental factors. Not long after, Cross (1981)<br />produce a more dynamic investment model called<br />Feedback Network Model. This model suggests the participation<br />learning is influenced by the attitudes and perceptions (attitudes<br />towards learning and self-appreciation) and environmental factors<br />(Access to information, barriers and family support).<br />According to Merriam and Caffarella (1999:243), Network Models<br />Feedback given by Cross (1981) is also capable of<br />explain the involvement of adults in learning self-direction.<br />After that, Darkenwald and Merriam (1982), suggests a model<br />35<br />entry similar to the feedback network model<br />Psychosocial Interaction Model named. Through these models,<br />Darkenwald and Merriam (1982) suggested social environmental factors<br />particularly socio-economic status (such as income, occupation, level of<br />education) and demographic characteristics (such as gender, race, marital status<br />and religion) is a major predictor of participation in activities<br />adult learning in addition to psychological factors (appreciation kendiri and<br />attitude towards learning). Based Psychosocial Interaction Model,<br />but most research on participation in learning<br />adults found that participation in non-formal learning is affected<br />by socio-demographic factors and psychology.<br />In addition to the three factors proposed by Darkenwald and Merriam in<br />above, Perin and Greenberg (in Ziegler and Durant, 2001) suggests<br />Another factor affecting the entry of variables<br />learning programs such as class size, program design and quality<br />program. Because this study seeks to identify patterns<br />non-formal education among farmers, fishermen and settlers, the<br />Researchers found Darkenwald Psychosocial Interaction Model and Merriam<br />(1982) most relevant to this study.<br />36<br />To understand learning in adults, the<br />then discuss three relevant theories of adult learning<br />with this study.<br />2.5 Adult Learning Theory<br />How do adults learn? If the role model of participation<br />explain the factors that affect participation in activities<br />learning, it also serves to explain the theory of learning<br />learning process. So, to understand the learning process in<br />among adults, the examination and discussion of the theory<br />adult learning is very important.<br />There are several theories that attempt to explain the learning process<br />adults. According to Merriam (2001), andragogy theory, theory<br />Self-Instruction Learning, Social Learning Theory, Theory of Socio-<br />Culture and transformative learning theory is one of the theories<br />beginning of adult learning. While the situation Cognitive Theory (Situated<br />Cognition Theory), Critical Theory and the Theory of Post-modernism is<br />learning theories described by Merriam as a new theory<br />for adult learning. Since the participation and learning patterns<br />non-formal education is strongly influenced by contextual factors (Tylor, 2006;<br />37<br />McGivney, 2002, Stein and email, 2002; Mazanah 2001), the theory<br />most relevant for discussion in this section is a theory<br />Social Learning and Cognitive Situation Theory and Socio-cultural theory.<br />Social learning theory proposed by Bandura (1977) is<br />one that combines elements of learning theory and cognitive<br />behavior. According to Bandura learning occurs through a process<br />observations in a social context. Based Learning Theory<br />Social, Blanchard and Thacker (2004) assert that learning<br />begins when individuals pay attention to events in<br />their environment. Next, Blanchard and Thacker asserts<br />that the stimulus from the environment is an important element of<br />help learning. Based on Social Learning Theory, Merriam<br />and Caffarella (1999) describes the context and interaction helps the process<br />learning in adults.<br />Cognitive Situation theory is a general theory to explain the process<br />knowledge acquisition was originally proposed by Gibson and<br />Vygotsky (Lave, 2004). Next Lave menejalaskan that this theory<br />later awakened by Brown, Collins and Duguid in<br />1989. Through the theory of cognitive situation, Brown, Collins and Duguid (1989)<br />asserts that learning occurs in adults in<br />a context that is influenced by culture and shared values<br />38<br />together in a social system. Accordingly, Brown et.al<br />formulate the resulting learning through interaction and collaboration of<br />community.<br />Socio-cultural theory has many similarities with the theory<br />Social Learning and Cognitive Theories situation was discussed in<br />above. According to Alfred (2002:5), Socio-cultural theory, the theory<br />learning and development put forward by Vygtosky. As<br />Social Learning Theory is theory and cognitive situation, socio-cultural theory<br />explaining participation and learning based on the concept<br />activity in human life occurs in a cultural context<br />generated by the language and social elements of the symbolic. This theory<br />explains that knowledge and learning related<br />with a social context, such as facilities, religious, cultural and<br />interaction between community members (Alfred, 2002). To support the theory<br />Socio-cultural, Perez (in Alfred, 2002) also confirmed the participation of<br />learning is a function of cultural identity.<br />Based on Socio-cultural theory, Alfred reminded the educators<br />adults to understand the culture and history of prior event<br />intends to implement effective learning programs.<br />Overall, the situation Koginitif Theory, Social Learning Theory<br />and Socio-cultural theory has much in common with each<br />Act.<br />39<br />In accordance with the perspective of the Social Learning Theory, Theory<br />Cognitive situation and socio-cultural theory, the conclusion of the learning<br />adults do not occur in a vacuum (Maznah and Carter, 2000, Merriam and<br />Caffarella, 1999) but occurs in a social context (Lave 2004)<br />are influenced by various factors such as religion, values, culture and<br />facilities available in the community (Lave, 2004, Merriam and<br />Caffarella, 1999, Merriam and Brockett, 1997). Thus, learning<br />the community is a community practice (community of<br />practice) which is formed when the members of the public practice of community<br />together to share knowledge, learn and apply what<br />Lesson learned.<br />2.6 Fields Pembelajaran<br />According to Colley et.al (2004) and Malcolm, Hodkinson and Colley (2003)<br />pattern is characteristic of such learning include content, methods,<br />place, time allocation, goals, and learning problems.<br />2.6.1 Content<br />40<br />Based on a study by Isaac (1999) on the participation of adults<br />in non-formal learning activities in a number of churches in America<br />States found that learning content is religious, artistic<br />and crafts, computers, finance, language, history and health. A<br />More specifically, the study found that religious education is focused<br />to study the Bible. The findings are supported by the finding Isaac Hale<br />(2004) are also found in the church are learning content<br />related to the religious.<br />Mazanah and Merriam (2000) in his study of 19 respondents<br />more than 60 years of age in Pakistan, found the content<br />the learning is about health, religious and<br />divine, family and community. Mazanah and Merriam (2000)<br />that there is no guideline on what to<br />learned by adults for adult learning policy is<br />has not been fully formulated in the Philippines.<br />Collum (2001) in his study of non-formal learning in<br />black population (African American) who participated<br />the streets of Chicago study found that the main content<br />is related to survival and how to get source<br />Finance. While Diouf (1998) are conducting research in the country<br />Senegal finds non-formal learning content among<br />41<br />farming communities in the country is related to religious, agricultural,<br />health and knowledge related to professional improvement<br />for adult males. While the adult female,<br />learning content focuses on matters relating to<br />the family as well as religion, agriculture and health.<br />02.06. 2nd Place<br />According to Heimlich (1996), many organizations become places for<br />implementing non-formal learning activities in the community,<br />Among them are museums, zoos, science centers, aquariums. Houses of worship such as<br />church (Isaac 1999) and the mosque and the mosque (Abdullah, 1989, Abdullah,<br />1995) is also a place for learning non-formal primary education.<br />Next, Heimlich (1996) believes that a<br />education should provide learning opportunities that can be<br />attract the adults to participate in the learning program<br />recommended. From a learning aspect, McGivney (2002)<br />concluded that non-formal learning in the community<br />performed at local venues that are open to all members of society.<br />2.6.3 Number of Entries<br />42<br />Adults are individuals who are always busy (Merriam and<br />Caffarella, 1999) with work and various other responsibilities.<br />In this context, Bierema (2002:69) confirms most of the people<br />adults provide time for a job as a source of income. .<br />Therefore, the time allocated to learning are influenced by<br />this factor. Based on research by the Department of Statistics Canada, a number of<br />of respondents allocate at least six hours a week<br />for non-formal learning. Based on studies in Canada, Livingstone<br />(2000) reported a reduction in the time<br />provided for learning with increasing age.<br />2.6.4 Objectives<br />Studies to identify the purpose of participation in adult learning<br />has been started and got the attention of many researchers and<br />start time. According to Merriam and Caffarella (1999), studies to<br />identify the purpose of participation in adult learning was<br />triggered by Houle in 1961. However the majority of<br />Research focused on the purpose of participation in higher education institutions<br />and the workplace. Research Houle (1961) has an impact on the<br />very significantly to the development of inquiry to mengenalpasti<br />purpose of participation (Merriam and Caffarella, 1999). For example, Fujita-<br />STARCK (1996) described the study as a symbol of the beginning Houle<br />43<br />empirical studies to identify the purpose of investment. Next, Fujita-<br />Starck (1996) asserted Houle gave a very stimulating<br />great for other researchers to develop<br />research in this field. According to Fujita-STARCK (1996), based on<br />The study, Houle divided into three investment objectives<br />orientation, namely: (1) goal orientation, (2) orientation activities, and (3) orientation<br />learning.<br />In a study involving 330 adults who participated in activities<br />learning in the church, Isaac (1999) found that the purpose of participation in<br />learning program is to meet the demands of religion,<br />meet the interest for learning, social responsibility and social interaction.<br />While the study by Heilizer (2003) found that the purpose of participation<br />adult learning in the museum because of personal interest, excitement,<br />social interaction and responsibility to the community.<br />In a study of 60 adults who participated in activities<br />non-formal learning in China, Wang (1999) found that goal<br />inclusion is to perform tasks better,<br />improve the intellectual level, obtain employment, prepare for<br />face of social, health, and for promotion.<br />Carre (2000) in his study of 1548 participants who attended<br />adult education program at the French divided the investment objectives<br />44<br />into three main categories: to obtain efficiency, self-knowing<br />itself and the formation of the project.<br />Based on studies at three churches in the United States, Isaac (1999)<br />found that the purpose of participating in adult learning activities in the church<br />They are: -<br />1. to familiarize with the culture.<br />2. for spiritual and religious development.<br />3. to meet the interest in learning.<br />4. to be better prepared to face challenges.<br />5. to be with family.<br />6. to serve others.<br />Nik Hairi (1998) in his study of participation in activities<br />training and learning among the residents of Bandar Baru Bangi,<br />Selangor to see the participation of the three perspectives, namely the development<br />personal, career development and community development. This study<br />found that the purpose of inclusion in the context of personal development is;<br />(1) improve the quality of the self, (2) interest, (3) household needs, (4)<br />job preparation, (5) improve the quality of work, (6) command employer, and (7)<br />leisure.<br />45<br />In the context of career development, the SFC found that six Hairi<br />investment objectives are: (1) improve the quality of work, (2) direction of the employer,<br />(3) the development of the task, (4) get new input, (5) work requirements, and<br />(6) improve the quality of self. These researchers further found that six<br />purpose of inclusion in the context of community development are: (1)<br />social responsibility, (2) religious duties, (3) improve the quality of<br />self, (4) interest, (5) work requirements, and (6) understand the community.<br />2.6. 5 Problems<br />According to Hall and Donaldson (1997), there are many previous studies<br />in the literature that attempts to explain learning problems. Next,<br />Hall and Donaldson (1997) bependapat of the earliest research<br />is by Johnstone and Rivera in 1965. In the study,<br />Johnstone and Rivera (in Hall and Donaldson, 1997) identified<br />two-factor or a barrier to learning is a key issue costs<br />from the table.<br />The study by Wang (1999) involving 60 respondents who participated<br />non-formal learning in China have three learning problems<br />faced by adult students are: (1) time constraints, (2)<br />lack of learning resources, and (3) financial problems. Hayes (1988)<br />46<br />in his study of 160 adults who have the ability<br />low literacy in the urban areas identified five factors barrier<br />the inclusion of low self-esteem, social barriers,<br />barrier situations, negative attitudes toward the class and did not give priority<br />to learning. In a study of 175 respondents aged<br />18 years or more, Beder (1990) found four main factors<br />preclude participation in Adult Basic Education (Adult<br />Basic Education, ABE) is a low perception of need<br />education, the perception that the participation needs attention<br />overall, not like the school and the obstacles the situation.<br />Through research using qualitative methods involving 22<br />teachers, Lohman (2000), mengenalpasti four issues to<br />informal learning in the workplace is the lack of time, resources<br />close study of limited, lack of rewards<br />learning and decision-making powers are very limited in<br />among school administrators. The study found a lack of time<br />The main problem is learning. Kui Tan Kian and<br />Mazanah (2001), who undertook to review the 337 members of the Institute<br />Kimia Malaysia (IKM) found that barriers to participation in<br />further education and training activities organized by the Institute of Chemistry<br />the constraints of family, poor quality of the program, less<br />47<br />support, costs, programs that are not relevant, work constraints, and lack of<br />priority to work related activities.<br />Based on previous studies as discussed above,<br />ringkasnyanya can be concluded that the pattern of non-formal learning<br />informal in nature. This is consistent with the opinion of Malcolm et.al (2003) that<br />asserts that learning among adults are largely<br />informal, community-based (social in nature) and is influenced<br />by a social context.<br />2.7 Summary<br />In short, learning is a continuous process and<br />not limited to children but to adults reach<br />as adults must learn to face problems<br />in life. Accordingly, an adult learning<br />a very important form of learning today. Learning<br />adults occur in formal, non-formal and informal at various locations<br />such as higher education institutions, the workplace and in society.<br />Non-formal learning in the Malay community in Malaysia<br />recorded as early as the 14th century through the spread of Islam<br />When non-formal learning institutions such as mosques and prayer<br />48<br />established to control the religious classes. Accordingly, the<br />non-formal learning activities in community-based rumahrumah<br />places of worship such as mosques and prayer. Models of participation and<br />Previous studies suggest that the participation of affected<br />by socio-demographic factors and psychological factors.<br />Based on the above discussion, Table 2.2 shows a summary<br />literature related to the study.<br />Table 2.2: Summary of literature<br />Article Summary of Literature<br />Learning<br />adult<br />Program pembelajaran yang<br />devoted to adult<br />Darkenwald than<br />Merriam (1982), Long<br />(1987), Brookfield<br />(1986), Rogers (1993),<br />Merriam dan Brockett<br />(1997).<br />Goal<br />learning<br />adult<br />Education times two<br />Education role<br />Vocational Education<br />Education for development<br />personal<br />Titmus (1989).<br />Mazanah and Norhayati<br />(1997).<br />Location formal learning institutions,<br />workplace and society<br />Livingstone (2000).<br />Form<br />learning<br />adult<br />Formal, non-formal and informal Minnis (2006),<br />Khankhow (2005),<br />Livingstone (2000),<br />Mazanah (2001),<br />Merriam dan Caffarella<br />(1999), Merriam dan<br />Brockett (1997), Combs<br />et.al (1973)<br />49<br />Table 2.2: Summary of Literature (continued)<br />Learning<br />non-formal<br />Learning is implemented<br />outside of the education system<br />formal<br />McGivney (2002),<br />Stein, Imel (2002),<br />Mazanah (2001),<br />Livingstone (2000),<br />Merriam dan Caffarella<br />(1999).<br />Model<br />entry<br />Participation is influenced by<br />sisio-demographic factors, attitudes<br />towards learning and<br />self-appreciation<br />Interaction Model<br />Psychosocial Darkenwald<br />dan Merriam (1982)<br />Theory<br />learning<br />adult<br />Apply learning in a<br />social context. He influenced<br />by values, culture, religion and<br />the ease of something<br />community<br />Learning Theory<br />Sosial (Bandura, 1977)<br />The theory of cognitive Situation<br />(Brown et.al,1989).<br />Socio-cultural Theory<br />Vygotsky (1987)<br />Fields<br />learning<br />Non-formal<br />Non-formal learning is<br />informal, contextualise dan<br />authentic.<br />Stein, Imel (2002),<br />Hale (2004), Isaac<br />(1999), then Mazanah<br />Merriam (2000).Al-Mansor Abu saidhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09355698983918954375noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8427095828809940450.post-45516795405124244332010-10-13T05:26:00.000-07:002010-10-13T05:27:04.935-07:00Pembelajaran DewasaTINJAUAN LITERATUR<br />2.0 Pengenalan<br />Bab ini terdiri daripada dua bahagian. Bahagian pertama membincangkan<br />beberapa aspek penting berkaitan pembelajaran dewasa terutamanya<br />pembelajaran non-formal. Antaranya ialah definisi, tujuan, bentuk dan<br />lokasi, model penyertaan dan teori pembelajaran dewasa. Perbincangan<br />terhadap beberapa aspek dalam pembelajaran dewasa didahulukan pada bab<br />ini bertujuan untuk mendapat kefahaman yang mendalam mengenai<br />pembelajaran di kalangan orang dewasa. Bahagian kedua pula memaparkan<br />pola pembelajaran non-formal berdasarkan dapatan daripada kajian-kajian<br />terdahulu.<br />2.1 Pembelajaran Dewasa<br />Apakah pembelajaran dewasa? Oleh kerana disiplin pembelajaran dewasa<br />telah lama berkembang (Thomas, 2001) terutamanya di negara-negara Barat<br />(Mohd Azhar et.al, 2004), maka terdapat pelbagai definisi bagi<br />16<br />pembelajaran dewasa yang telah dikemukakan oleh para sarjana dalam<br />bidang ini. Menurut Merriam dan Brockett (1997), antara definisi terawal<br />bagi pembelajaran dewasa dikemukakan oleh Bryson pada tahun 1936.<br />Bryson (dalam Merriam dan Brockett,1997) mengatakan pembelajaran<br />dewasa merupakan segala aktiviti yang mempunyai tujuan dalam konteks<br />pembelajaran yang dijalankan dalam kehidupan seharian manusia. Merriam<br />dan Caffarella (1999) mengemukakan definisi yang hampir sama seperti<br />Bryson dengan mengatakan pembelajaran dewasa sebagai segala usaha<br />sistematik yang mempunyai tujuan tertentu bagi melahirkan orang dewasa<br />berilmu pengetahuan.<br />Brookfield (1986) pula menegaskan pembelajaran dewasa adalah proses<br />pembangunan diri bagi membolehkan orang dewasa mempunyai keyakinan<br />terhadap kebolehan diri sendiri. Jika dianalisis definisi yang dikemukakan<br />Bryson, dan Brookfield di atas, ia boleh disifatkan sebagai satu definisi yang<br />agak umum yang menggambarkan pembelajaran dewasa. Sehubungan<br />dengan ini, Darkenwald dan Merriam (1982:9) mengemukakan takrifan<br />yang lebih terperinci seperti berikut: -<br />“Pembelajaran dewasa merupakan satu proses apabila<br />seseorang yang mempunyai status dan berperanan sebagai<br />seorang dewasa menyertai aktiviti pembelajaran supaya<br />berlaku perubahan pengetahuan, sikap, nilai dan<br />kemahiran.”<br />17<br />Di samping Darkenwald dan Merriam (1982), Rogers (1993:28) juga telah<br />mengemukakan definisi pembelajaran dewasa yang komprehensif iaitu: -<br />“Semua peluang pembelajaran yang dirancang dan<br />mempunyai tujuan tertentu yang disediakan kepada<br />individu yang diiktiraf dan mengiktirafkan diri mereka<br />sebagai orang dewasa dalam sesebuah masyarakat serta<br />telah meninggalkan sistem pendidikan formal. Peluang<br />pembelajaran sama ada secara formal atau tidak formal<br />seharusnya menyediakan panduan kepada orang dewasa<br />dalam proses membuat keputusan, menggunakan<br />metodologi dan pendekatan yang bersesuaian dengan<br />pengalaman orang dewasa bagi mencapai tujuan dan<br />keperluan mereka.”<br />Walaupun Darkenwald dan Merriam serta Rogers mengemukakan definisi<br />yang agak komprehensif, tetapi bagi Merriam dan Brockett (1997) definisi<br />terbaik bagi pembelajaran dewasa telah dikemukakan oleh Houle pada<br />tahun 1972. Menurut Houle (1972), pembelajaran dewasa merupakan<br />proses perancangan yang dilaksanakan oleh individu atau agensi untuk<br />peningkatan atau pembangunan diri individu, kumpulan dan keseluruhan<br />anggota masyarakat.<br />Walaupun Merriam dan Brockett menyifatkan definisi bagi pembelajaran<br />dewasa yang dikemukakan oleh Houle sebagai terbaik, mereka juga telah<br />mengemukakan definisi mereka sendiri dalam usaha untuk menjelaskan<br />pembelajaran dewasa seperti berikut: -<br />“Pembelajaran dewasa merupakan aktiviti yang direka<br />bentuk khusus bagi tujuan proses pembelajaran di kalangan<br />18<br />mereka yang mempunyai umur, peranan sosial atau<br />persepsi diri yang boleh didefinisikan sebagai orang<br />dewasa” (ms:8).<br />Dalam konteks Malaysia pula, Mazanah dan Norhayati (1997) merujuk<br />pembelajaran dewasa sebagai peluang-peluang pembelajaran yang diikuti<br />oleh orang dewasa di luar dari sistem persekolahan formal.<br />Terdapat beberapa istilah lain yang mempunyai makna yang sama dengan<br />pembelajaran dewasa. Penggunaan istilah-istilah tersebut saling bertukar<br />ganti dengan pembelajaran dewasa. Sebagai contoh, Darkenwald dan<br />Merriam (1982) mengaitkan pembelajaran dewasa dengan pendidikan<br />penyambungan, pendidikan komuniti, pendidikan lanjutan, pendidikan<br />berulangan, pembangunan sumber manusia, latihan dan andragogi.<br />Manakala Merriam dan Brockett (1997) pula mengaitkan pembelajaran<br />dewasa dengan istilah pendidikan seumur hidup, pendidikan kekal dan<br />pendidikan berulangan. Istilah pendidikan penyambungan, pendidikan<br />lanjutan dan pendidikan komuniti digunakan dengan meluas di Amerika<br />Syarikat (Merriam dan Mazanah, 2001), manakala pendidikan seumur<br />hidup, pendidikan berulangan merupakan istilah yang dipopularkan oleh<br />UNESCO pada tahun 1970-an (Merriam dan Brockett, 1997).<br />Berdasarkan definisi-definisi di atas, ringkasnya, pembelajaran dewasa<br />merupakan semua aktiviti pembelajaran yang dikhususkan untuk orang<br />19<br />dewasa. Dalam kajian ini, penggunaan perkataan pembelajaran dan<br />pendidikan saling bertukar ganti kerana dalam konteks pembelajaran<br />dewasa, kedua-dua istilah tersebut membawa maksud yang sama iaitu<br />proses memperoleh pengetahuan dan kemahiran di kalangan orang dewasa.<br />Persoalannya apakah tujuan pembelajaran dewasa? Bahagian berikutnya<br />membincangkan tujuan pembelajaran berdasarkan kepada penulisan yang<br />telah terdapat dalam literatur.<br />2.2 Tujuan Pembelajaran Dewasa<br />Mengikut Ruud dan Preece (2005), potensi bagi pembelajaran dewasa bukan<br />setakat literasi atau pembelajaran asas sahaja, tetapi tujuan pembelajaran<br />dewasa menjangkau lebih daripada itu. Jadi, apakah tujuan pembelajaran<br />dewasa? Beberapa penulis telah mengemukakan tujuan pembelajaran<br />dewasa yang menampakkan perbezaan antara satu sama lain. Mazanah<br />(2001) menegaskan perbezaan tujuan pembelajaran dewasa disebabkan oleh<br />konteks dan sejarah pembelajaran dewasa yang berbeza antara satu negara<br />dengan negara lain. Sebagai contoh, Rogers (1993) mengatakan tujuan<br />pembelajaran dewasa di negara membangun untuk memenuhi keperluan<br />sosial dan perkembangan ekonomi. Manakala bagi negara maju pula,<br />pembelajaran dewasa bertujuan untuk menyediakan sumber tenaga manusia<br />yang berilmu pengetahuan dan cekap.<br />20<br />Menurut Merriam dan Caffarella (1999), tujuan pembelajaran dewasa<br />sentiasa berubah. Sebagai contoh, pembelajaran dewasa yang berasaskan<br />agama semasa penjajahan pada pertengahan abad ke-18 di Amerika Syarikat<br />bertujuan menyedarkan rakyat supaya bangun memperjuangkan<br />kemerdekaan. Tiga puluh tahun selepas itu, pembelajaran dewasa di<br />Amerika Syarikat bertujuan melatih tenaga kerja bagi menghadapi<br />perkembangan teknologi yang pesat. Manakala pembelajaran dewasa pada<br />hari ini adalah menyediakan sumber tenaga manusia bagi menghadapi<br />cabaran globalisasi dan k-ekonomi (Merriam dan Caffarella, 1999).<br />Walaupun ramai penulis telah mengemukakan tujuan pembelajaran dewasa,<br />tetapi empat tujuan pembelajaran dewasa yang dikemukakan oleh Titmus<br />(1989) adalah lebih komprehensif. Empat tujuan tersebut adalah : -<br />1. Peluang pendidikan kali kedua – pembelajaran yang<br />disediakan untuk orang dewasa yang tidak berpeluang<br />untuk mengikuti pembelajaran secara formal.<br />2. Pendidikan peranan – iaitu pembelajaran bagi<br />membolehkan seseorang berperanan dalam sistem sosial.<br />3. Pendidikan vokasional – adalah pendidikan untuk<br />mendapatkan ilmu pengetahuan dan kemahiran bagi<br />tujuan pekerjaan.<br />21<br />4. Pendidikan pembangunan personal – adalah pembelajaran<br />untuk pembangunan individu.<br />Dalam konteks Malaysia, Mazanah dan Norhayati (1997) menggariskan<br />tujuan pembelajaran dewasa berdasarkan tiga orientasi berikut:-<br />1. Orientasi vokasional – menyediakan kemahiran dan<br />pengetahuan untuk menghadapi cabaran dalam dunia<br />pekerjaan.<br />2. Orientasi sosial – pembinaan bangsa Malaysia yang<br />harmoni dalam masyarakat pelbagai kaum.<br />3. Orientasi individu – membantu melahirkan ibubapa,<br />pemimpin dan warganegara yang terbaik di kalangan<br />rakyat Malaysia.<br />Secara keseluruhannya, pembelajaran dewasa bertujuan untuk membawa<br />perubahan manusia ke arah yang lebih baik dalam semua aspek kehidupan<br />manusia. Tujuan pembelajaran dewasa diringkaskan oleh Mohd Azhar et.al<br />(2004: 36) seperti berikut: -<br />“Pembelajaran dewasa bertujuan membawa perubahan<br />positif secara menyeluruh dalam semua bidang bermula<br />daripada individu seterusnya kepada masyarakat dalam<br />aspek sosial, ekonomi mahupun politik.”<br />22<br />2.3 Lokasi Dan Bentuk Pembelajaran Dewasa<br />Pembelajaran berlaku sepanjang hayat (Mohd Azhar et.al, 2004; Mazanah<br />dan Carter; 2000; Merriam dan Caffarella, 1999) yang mana orang dewasa<br />menyertai aktiviti pembelajaran dalam pelbagai bentuk dan tempat.<br />Persoalannya, di mana lokasi bagi pembelajaran dewasa? Menurut<br />Livingstone (2000), tiga lokasi utama bagi pembelajaran dewasa adalah<br />institusi pembelajaran formal, tempat kerja dan dalam masyarakat.<br />Selaras dengan lokasi pembelajaran dewasa yang dikemukakan oleh<br />Livingstone (2000) di atas, maka tiga bentuk pembelajaran dewasa yang<br />dikemukakan oleh kebanyakan literatur adalah pembelajaran formal, nonformal<br />dan informal (Minnis, 2006; Mazanah, 2001; Merriam dan<br />Caffarella, 1999; Merriam dan Brockett, 1997; Coombs, et. al, 1973).<br />Walaupun fokus kajian kepada pembelajaran non-formal, tetapi<br />pembelajaran formal dan informal turut dibincangkan dengan mendalam<br />pada bahagian ini untuk mengenalpasti perbezaan di antara satu sama lain.<br />Walaupun tiga bentuk pembelajaran dewasa iaitu formal, non-formal dan<br />informal telah lama diperkenalkan dalam banyak penulisan (seperti Colley,<br />Hodkinson dan Malcom, 2004; Livingstone, 2000), tetapi interpretasi yang<br />jelas terhadap ketiga-tiga bentuk pembelajaran itu masih belum mantap dan<br />komprehensif. Sehubungan dengan itu, pendebatan terhadap definisi<br />23<br />pembelajaran formal, non-formal dan informal masih berlarutan sehingga<br />kehari ini (Colley et.al, 2004). Interpretasi yang berbeza-beza terhadap<br />ketiga-ketiga bentuk pembelajaran dewasa di atas berlaku kerana<br />perlaksanaan program pembelajaran dewasa adalah dalam pelbagai konteks.<br />Di samping itu, sempadan yang tidak jelas antara pembelajaran formal, nonformal<br />dan informal (Colley et.al, 2004) juga telah menyumbang kepada<br />intrepretasi yang berbeza-beza melalui pelbagai penulisan dalam<br />pembelajaran dewasa (Malcolm, Hodkinson dan Colley, 2003). Menyedari<br />mengenai kesukaran untuk memahami ketiga-tiga bentuk pembelajaran di<br />atas, Tylor (2006) menegaskan bahawa pembelajaran non-formal dan<br />informal lebih mudah difahami sekiranya seseorang cuba memahami<br />pembelajaran formal terlebih dahulu.<br />Berdasarkan pendapat Tylor di atas, maka pembelajaran formal<br />dibincangkan terlebih dahulu pada bahagian seterusnya.<br />2.3.1 Pembelajaran Formal<br />Terdapat beberapa penulis yang cuba mendefinisikan pembelajaran formal<br />Antaranya termasuklah Minnis (2006), Tylor (2006), Eraut (2004), Mohd<br />Azhar et.al (2004), Malcolm et.al (2003), Livingstone (2000) dan Merriam<br />dan Caffarella (1999). Walau bagaimanapun, penulisan mengenai<br />24<br />pembelajaran formal di atas menunjukkan perbezaan antara satu sama lain<br />kerana dipengaruhi oleh konteks penulisan mereka. Sebagai contoh Tylor<br />mendefinisikan pembelajaran formal secara umum, sedangkan Eraut<br />memberikan gambaran mengenai pembelajaran formal dari kacamata<br />pembelajaran di tempat kerja. Manakala Livingstone pula mendefinisikan<br />pembelajaran formal dari perspektif pembelajaran dewasa dan pendidikan<br />lanjutan. Perenggan berikut mengemukakan beberapa ciri pembelajaran<br />formal daripada beberapa perspektif dan diikuti dengan ringkasan<br />mengenai pembelajaran formal.<br />Daripada perspektif yang agak umum, Tylor (2006) menggariskan<br />beberapa ciri pembelajaran formal. Antaranya adalah berstruktur secara<br />hierarki dalam suatu sistem pendidikan dan dikendalikan oleh institusi<br />pengajian tinggi. Minnis (2006) menggariskan ciri yang hampir sama bagi<br />pendidikan formal dengan Tylor. Menurut Minnis, pembelajaran formal<br />adalah berpusatkan guru, birokratik dan dikawal sepenuhnya oleh<br />kerajaan. Manakala Livingstone (2000) melihat pembelajaran formal<br />sebagai pembelajaran yang disertai oleh orang dewasa di institusi<br />pembelajaran formal yang diiktiraf oleh kerajaan. Livingstone seterusnya<br />menegaskan pembelajaran formal mempunyai kurikulum yang mantap<br />serta membawa kepada penganugerahan sijil kelayakan yang diiktiraf oleh<br />kerajaan.<br />25<br />Eraut (2004) pula mengemukakan lima ciri bagi menerangkan<br />pembelajaran formal iaitu:-<br />i. Kerangka pembelajaran yang telah ditetapkan<br />ii. Program pembelajaran yang tersusun<br />iii. Dikendalikan oleh guru yang dilantik<br />iv. Sijil kelayakan dianugerahkan kepada peserta<br />v. Mempunyai matlamat akhir yang spesifik<br />Di Malaysia, pembelajaran formal bagi orang dewasa dikendalikan oleh<br />pelbagai institusi pengajian tinggi, kolej dan pusat latihan (Mazanah, 2001)<br />sama ada dimiliki oleh kerajaan atau swasta. Pada kebiasaannya, kemasukan<br />ke institusi pembelajaran formal memerlukan kelayakan akademik tertentu<br />serta melalui proses pemilihan yang ketat. Di samping itu, yuran pengajian<br />bagi pembelajaran formal agak tinggi terutamanya program pembelajaran<br />yang dikendalikan oleh agensi swasta. Secara umumnya, definisi<br />pembelajaran formal dalam konteks Malaysia adalah setara dengan definisi<br />daripada beberapa penulis dari negara Barat seperti Tylor (2006), Minnis<br />(2006), Eraut (2004) dan Livingstone (2000).<br />Berdasarkan definisi-definisi serta ciri pembelajaran formal yang<br />dikemukakan oleh penulis-penulis seperti yang dibincangkan di atas,<br />kesimpulaannya, pembelajaran formal merupakan pembelajaran yang<br />26<br />dikendalikan oleh institusi pengajian formal melalui perlaksanaan program<br />yang berstruktur mengikut kurikulum yang telah dirangka terlebih dahulu.<br />Dalam konteks penyelidikan, pembelajaran formal di institusi pembelajaran<br />tinggi dan di tempat kerja lebih mendapat perhatian dari kalangan<br />penyelidik ( Darkenwald dan Merriam, 1982) dan pihak kerajaan (Mazalan<br />et.al, 2005) kerana pembelajaran formal lebih mendapat pengiktirafan<br />(Merriam dan Brockett, 1997).<br />2.3.2 Pembelajaran Non-Formal<br />Menurut Thomas (2001), pembelajaran non-formal mempunyai sejarah yang<br />panjang di kebanyakan negara di dunia. Walau bagaimanapun, Thomas<br />menjelaskan bahawa istilah pembelajaran non-formal mula dipopularkan<br />pada pertengahan tahun 1960-an. Seterusnya, Thomas menegaskan bahawa<br />kemunculan istilah pembelajaran non-formal terhasil daripada keperluan<br />masyarakat kepada satu bentuk pembelajaran baru dan berbeza daripada<br />pembelajaran formal yang sedia ada. Masyarakat memerlukan satu bentuk<br />pembelajaran baru seperti pembelajaran non-formal apabila mereka melihat<br />pembelajaran formal bersifat terasing (private) dan bukannya milik umum<br />(Minnis, 2006). Sehubungan itu, Andersson dan Andersson (2004)<br />berpendapat pembelajaran formal kadang-kadang dianggap tidak bermakna<br />27<br />kepada golongan tertentu apabila terdapat pelbagai halangan dan sekatan<br />untuk menyertainya.<br />Jadi, apakah yang dimaksudkan dengan pembelajaran non-formal? Menurut<br />Merriam dan Brockett (2003), definisi pembelajaran non-formal merupakan<br />satu isu yang masih menjadi tajuk perbahasan di kalangan pendidik.<br />Kesukaran untuk mendefinisikan secara tepat bagi pembelajaran non-formal<br />adalah kerana pertindihan yang wujud antara pembelajaran non-formal<br />dengan pembelajaran formal (Malcolm et.al, 2003; Coombs, et.al, 1973).<br />Walaupun terdapat pelbagai definisi bagi pembelajaran non-formal dalam<br />literatur, Merriam dan Brockett berpendapat definisi klasik yang<br />dikemukakan oleh Coombs et.al, (1973) merupakan satu definisi yang<br />sangat baik dan sering menjadi rujukan kepada penulis-penulis lain.<br />Coombs dan Ahmed mendefinisikan pembelajaran non-formal sebagai<br />aktiviti pembelajaran yang dikendalikan secara sistematik di luar dari sistem<br />pembelajaran formal bagi menyediakan ilmu pengetahuan tertentu kepada<br />kumpulan terpilih dalam suatu populasi.<br />Beradasarkan definisi daripada Coombs et.al, (1973), kebanyakkan penulis<br />kemudiaannya mendefinisikan pembelajaran non-formal sebagai<br />pembelajaran yang dilaksanakan di luar sistem persekolahan atau<br />pembelajaran formal yang dicirikan oleh perlaksanaan yang kurang<br />berstruktur, lebih fleksibel dan responsif kepada keperluan masyarakat<br />28<br />setempat (McGiveny, 2002; Stein dan Imel, 2002; Mazanah, 2001;<br />Livingstone, 2000; Merriam dan Caffarella, 1999; Merriam dan Brockett,<br />1997). Jabatan Statisitik Kanada (2002) menggambarkan pembelajaran nonformal<br />secara lebih spesifik dengan mengatakan pembelajaran non-formal<br />adalah semua aktiviti pembelajaran yang ditawarkan oleh institusi sosial<br />kepada pelajar dewasa setelah meninggalkan sistem persekolahan formal.<br />Setara dengan pendapat Jabatan statistik Kanada di atas, Tylor (2006)<br />menambah pembelajaran non-formal dicirikan oleh penyertaan secara<br />sukarela dari pelbagai lapisan masyarakat, di kendalikan di tempat awam<br />oleh pengajar yang biasanya tidak mendapat latihan yang secukupnya.<br />Walau pun terdapat ramai penulis (McGiveny, 2002; Stein dan Imel, 2002;<br />Livingstone, 2000; Merriam dan Caffarella, 1999; Merriam dan Brockett,<br />1997) cuba menerangkan pembelajaran non-formal berdasarkan definisi<br />klasik dari Coombs dan Ahmed (1973), tetapi kerangka yang dikemukakan<br />oleh Brennan (1997) didapati komprehensif untuk memahami pembelajaran<br />non-formal. Berdasarkan analisis terhadap definisi yang dikemukakan oleh<br />Coombs dan Ahmed (1974), Brennan mengemukakan tiga elemen bagi<br />menerangkan pembelajaran non-formal iaitu sistem, setting dan proses.<br />29<br />Mengikut Brennan, pembelajaran non-formal merupakan satu sistem<br />pembelajaran yang tidak berpusat (decentralized) dan tidak berstruktur.<br />Sehubungan itu, pembelajaran non-formal di kendalikan secara berbeza dari<br />satu masyarakat dengan satu masyarakat yang lain (Tylor, 2006). Daripada<br />elemen setting pula, pembelajaran non-formal dikendalikan di luar sistem<br />pembelajaran formal serta tidak diselia oleh sistem pembelajaran formal.<br />Biasanya pembelajaran non-formal dikendalikan di infrastruktur fizikal<br />yang terletak di lokasi yang memerlukan program pembelajaran. Dalam<br />konteks proses pula, pengajaran bagi pembelajaran non-formal berbeza<br />dengan pembelajaran formal yang mana strategi pengajaran dan<br />pembelajaran perlu disesuaikan dengan keperluan dan budaya masyarakat<br />terutamanya dengan mengambil kira pelajar adalah golongan orang dewas.<br />Berdasarkan tiga elemen dalam pembelajaran non-formal seperti yang<br />dibincangkan di atas, Brennan (1997) seterusnya mencadangkan tiga bentuk<br />pembelajaran non-formal iaitu pelengkap (complementing), alternatif dan<br />tambahan (supplement). Penerangan bagi ketiga-tiga bentuk pembelajaran<br />non-formal diringkaskan dalam Rajah 2.1.<br />Pelengkap<br />Pembelajaran non- formal menjadi pelengkap<br />apabila keperluan pembelajaran tidak dapat<br />dipenuhi oleh pembelajaran formal<br />Alternatif<br />Pembelajaran non-formal yang menjadi<br />pilihan selain daripada pembelajaran formal.<br />30<br />Rajah 2.1: Bentuk pembelajaran non-formal<br />Di Malaysia, pembelajaran non-formal berperanan sebagai agen<br />pembangunan dan perubahan sosial anggota masyarakat (Mazanah, 2001)<br />setara dengan fungsi pembelajaran non-formal seperti yang digariskan oleh<br />Tylor (2006). Di samping itu, pembelajaran non-formal juga berperanan<br />sebagai tempat yang menawarkan peluang pembelajaran yang sama rata<br />tanpa mengira status sosio-ekonomi (Cain, 2002). Ringkasnya,<br />pembelajaran non-formal merupakan pendekatan penting yang membawa<br />kepada perubahan individu, masyarakat dan negara.<br />2.3.3 Pembelajaran Informal<br />Menurut Marsick dan Watkins (2001), pembelajaran informal merupakan<br />‘hati’ kepada pembelajaran dewasa. Justeru itu, istilah pembelajaran<br />informal telah lama digunakan dalam disiplin pembelajaran dewasa<br />(Eraut, 2004). Eraut seterusnya menegaskan istilah pembelajaran<br />informal mula diperkenalkan oleh beberapa ahli falsafah pendidikan<br />seperti John Dewey, Kurt Lewin dan Merry Parker. Namun begitu, seperti<br />Tambahan<br />Pembelajaran non-formal yang menjadi<br />tambahan kepada pembelajaran formal.<br />Pembelajaran ini biasanya untuk<br />pembangunan negara yang tidak dapat<br />dipenuhi oleh sistem formal<br />31<br />juga pembelajaran non-formal, pembelajaran informal seringkali terabai,<br />kurang dinilai dan tidak diberi tumpuan dalam penyelidikan (Eraut, 2004)<br />bukan sahaja di Malaysia tetapi di kebanyakan negara lain juga (Mazalan<br />et.al, 2005).<br />Marsick dan Watkins (2001:25), mendefinisikan pembelajaran informal<br />sebagai pembelajaran yang tidak berasaskan bilik darjah, tidak berstruktur<br />dan autonomi pembelajaran dikawal sepenuhnya oleh pelajar. Oleh kerana<br />autonomi pembelajaran dikawal sepenuhnya oleh pelajar, maka<br />pembelajaran informal dikaitkan dengan dengan pembelajaran arahan<br />kendiri (self-directed learning). Sehubungan itu, objektif, kandungan, masa,<br />kaedah dan penilaian hasil pembelajaran ditentukan sepenuhnya oleh pelajar<br />itu sendiri (Livingstone, 2000). Salah satu komponen pembelajaran informal<br />adalah pembelajaran yang tidak disengajakan (accidental learning). Marsick<br />dan Watkins mentakrifkan pembelajaran yang tidak disengajakan sebagai<br />pembelajaran yang berlaku secara tidak disengajakan dan pelajar seringkali<br />tidak sedar berlakunya proses pembelajaran tersebut. Pembelajaran informal<br />merupakan sebahagian daripada bentuk pembelajaran dewasa yang sangat<br />penting bagi mendapatkan ilmu pengetahuan untuk menghadapi cabaran dan<br />persekitaran yang sentiasa berubah (Livingstone, 2000).<br />Manakala Colardyn dan Bjornavold (2004) mentakrifkan pembelajaran<br />informal sebagai proses pembelajaran yang terhasil daripada aktiviti dalam<br />32<br />kehidupan seseorang yang berkaitan dengan pekerjaan, keluarga dan masa<br />lapang. Selaras dengan definisi yang dikemukakan oleh Marsick dan Watkin<br />(2001), Colardyn dan Bjornavold seterusnya menegaskan bahawa<br />pembelajaran informal biasanya tidak bersruktur dari segi objektif, masa dan<br />sokongan pembelajaran. Konsisten dengan takrifan yang diberikan oleh<br />Marsick dan Watkins (2001), Colardyn dan Bjornavold juga berpendapat<br />pembelajaran informal biasanya tidak disedari dan tidak disengajakan. Oleh<br />itu, pembelajaran in-formal tidak membawa kepada penganugerahan sijil.<br />Secara ringkas pembelajaran informal dedefinisikan sebagai sebarang<br />aktiviti yang membawa kepada pemerolehan kefahaman, ilmu pengetahuan<br />dan kemahiran yang berlaku di luar daripada institusi pembelajaran formal<br />dan non-formal. Bagi mendapat gambaran yang lebih jelas terhadap<br />perbezaan pembelajaran formal, non-formal dan informal, penyelidik<br />membuat satu analisis terhadap definisi di atas. Keputusan analisis tersebut<br />ditunjukkan dalam Jadual 2.1.<br />Jadual 2.1 : Perbezaan antara pembelajaran formal, non-formal dan<br />informal.<br />Bentuk Pembelajaran<br />Kriteria<br />Formal Non-formal Informal<br />Lokasi Institusi<br />pembelajaran formal<br />Institusi sosial Di mana-mana<br />Penyertaan Melalui pemilihan<br />yang ketat<br />Terbuka Arahan kendiri<br />Struktur Ketat dan teratur Kurang Tiada struktur<br />33<br />berstruktur<br />Pensijilan Dianugerahkan sijil<br />kelayakan yang<br />diiktiraf<br />Biasanya<br />tanpa sijil<br />kelayakan<br />yang diiktiraf<br />Tanpa sijil<br />kelayakan<br />Perlaksanaan Dikawal selia oleh<br />badan tertentu<br />Tanpa<br />pengawalan<br />yang jelas<br />Tanpa<br />pengawalan<br />langsung<br />Konteks Kurang dipengaruhi<br />oleh faktor<br />konteksual<br />Sangat<br />dipengaruhi<br />oleh faktor<br />kontekstual<br />Sangat<br />dipengaruhi<br />oleh faktor<br />kontekstual<br />Autonomi<br />pembelajaran<br />Dikawal oleh<br />institusi<br />pembelajaran<br />Dikawal oleh<br />pelajar<br />Dikawal<br />sepenuhnya<br />oleh pelajar<br />Lokus<br />kawalan oleh<br />pelajar<br />Disengajakan Disengajakan Disengaja dan<br />tidak<br />disengajakan<br />2.4 Model Penyertaan Dalam Pembelajaran Dewasa<br />Penyertaan dalam aktiviti pembelajaran merupakan sesuatu yang kompleks<br />(Ziegler dan Durant, 2001). Sehubungan dengan itu, Ziegler dan Durant<br />menegaskan ramai penulis cuba mengemukakan kerangka atau model bagi<br />memahami penyertaan dalam pembelajaran dewasa. Di samping itu, para<br />penyelidik juga terus menjalankan penyelidikan untuk memahami mengapa<br />orang dewasa membuat keputusan untuk menyertai aktiviti pembelajaran<br />(Tylor, dalam Blunt dan Yang, 2002). Oleh kerana penyertaan dalam aktiviti<br />pembelajaran merupakan sesuatu yang kompleks, maka kajian mengenai<br />penyertaan terus mendapat perhatian dalam bidang pendidikan dewasa dan<br />pendidikan lanjutan (Blunt dan Yang, 2002: 299).<br />34<br />Oleh kerana banyak kajian telah dijalankan untuk memahami penyertaan<br />dalam pembelajaran dewasa, maka terdapat beberapa model penyertaan<br />yang dikemukakan oleh sarjana pembelajaran dewasa dalam literatur.<br />Menurut Keintz (2004), model penyertaan berperanan meramal sama ada<br />orang dewasa akan menyertai aktiviti pembelajaran atau tidak.<br />Mengikut Keintz (2004), model-model penyertaan yang dikemukakan pada<br />peringkat awal perkembangan disiplin pembelajaran dewasa adalah model<br />Boshier, Miller dan model Rubenson. Model-model tersebut mencadangkan<br />penyertaan dalam aktiviti pembelajaran dewasa dipengaruhi oleh dua faktor<br />utama iaitu (1) faktor dalaman atau faktor psikologi, dan (2) faktor luaran<br />atau faktor persekitaran. Tidak lama selepas itu, Cross (1981)<br />mengemukakan model penyertaan yang lebih dinamik yang dinamakan<br />Model Rangkaian Maklumbalas. Model ini mencadangkan penyertaan<br />dalam pembelajaran dipengaruhi oleh faktor sikap dan persepsi (sikap<br />terhadap pembelajaran dan penghargaan kendiri) serta faktor persekitaran<br />(capaian kepada maklumat, halangan dan sokongan keluarga).<br />Mengikut Merriam dan Caffarella (1999:243), Model Rangkaian<br />Maklumbalas yang dikemukakan oleh Cross (1981) juga mampu<br />menerangkan penglibatan orang dewasa dalam pembelajaran arahan kendiri.<br />Selepas itu, Darkenwald dan Merriam (1982), mencadangkan model<br />35<br />penyertaan yang hampir sama dengan Model Rangkaian Maklumbalas yang<br />dinamakan Model Interaksi Psikososial. Melalui model tersebut,<br />Darkenwald dan Merriam (1982) mencadangkan faktor persekitaran sosial<br />terutamanya status sosio-ekonomi (seperti pendapatan, pekerjaan, tahap<br />pendidikan) dan ciri demografi (seperti jantina, bangsa, taraf perkahwinan<br />dan agama) merupakan peramal utama bagi penyertaan dalam aktiviti<br />pembelajaran dewasa di samping faktor psikologi (penghargaan kendiri dan<br />sikap terhadap pembelajaran). Berdasarkan Model Interaksi Psikososial,<br />maka kebanyakan penyelidikan berkaitan penyertaan dalam pembelajaran<br />dewasa mendapati penyertaan dalam pembelajaran non-formal dipengaruhi<br />oleh faktor sosio-demografi dan psikologi.<br />Di samping tiga faktor yang dikemukakan oleh Darkenwald dan Merriam di<br />atas, Perin dan Greenberg (dalam Ziegler dan Durant, 2001) mengemukakan<br />satu lagi faktor yang mempengaruhi penyertaan iaitu pembolehubah<br />program pembelajaran seperti saiz kelas, reka bentuk program dan kualiti<br />program. Oleh kerana kajian ini bertujuan untuk mengenalpasti pola<br />pembelajaran non-formal di kalangan petani, nelayan dan peneroka, maka<br />penyelidik mendapati Model Interaksi Psikososial Darkenwald dan Merriam<br />(1982) paling relevan bagi kajian ini.<br />36<br />Bagi memahami pembelajaran di kalangan orang dewasa, bahagian<br />seterusnya membincangkan tiga teori pembelajaran dewasa yang relevan<br />dengan kajian ini.<br />2.5 Teori Pembelajaran Dewasa<br />Bagaimana orang dewasa belajar? Sekiranya model penyertaan berperanan<br />menerangkan faktor yang mempengaruhi penyertaan dalam aktiviti<br />pembelajaran, maka teori pembelajaran pula berperanan menerangkan<br />proses pembelajaran. Jadi, untuk memahami proses pembelajaran di<br />kalangan orang dewasa, pemeriksaan dan perbincangan terhadap teori<br />pembelajaran dewasa adalah sangat penting.<br />Terdapat beberapa teori yang cuba menerangkan proses pembelajaran di<br />kalangan orang dewasa. Menurut Merriam (2001), Teori Andragogi, Teori<br />Pembelajaran Arahan Kendiri, Teori Pembelajaran Sosial, Teori Sosio-<br />Budaya dan Teori Pembelajaran Transformatif merupakan antara teori-teori<br />awal bagi pembelajaran dewasa. Manakala Teori Situasi Kognitif (Situated<br />Cognition Theory), Teori Kritikal dan Teori Pasca-Modenisme merupakan<br />teori-teori pembelajaran yang disifatkan oleh Merriam sebagai teori baru<br />bagi pembelajaran dewasa. Oleh kerana penyertaan dan pola pembelajaran<br />non-formal sangat dipengaruhi oleh faktor kontekstual (Tylor, 2006;<br />37<br />McGivney, 2002; Stein dan Imel, 2002; Mazanah 2001), maka teori yang<br />paling relevan untuk dibincangkan pada bahagian ini adalah Teori<br />Pembelajaran Sosial dan Teori Situasi Kognitif dan Teori Sosio-budaya.<br />Teori Pembelajaran Sosial dikemukakan oleh Bandura (1977) merupakan<br />satu teori pembelajaran yang menggabungkan elemen kognitif dan<br />tingkahlaku. Mengikut Bandura pembelajaran berlaku melalui proses<br />pemerhatian dalam suatu konteks sosial. Berdasarkan Teori Pembelajaran<br />Sosial, Blanchard dan Thacker (2004) menegaskan bahawa pembelajaran<br />bermula apabila individu memberi perhatian terhadap peristiwa dalam<br />persekitaran mereka. Seterusnya, Blanchard dan Thacker menegaskan<br />bahawa rangsangan dari persekitaran merupakan elemen penting yang<br />membantu pembelajaran. Berdasarkan Teori Pembelajaran Sosial, Merriam<br />dan Caffarella (1999) menjelaskan konteks dan interaksi membantu proses<br />pembelajaran di kalangan orang dewasa.<br />Teori Situasi Kognitif merupakan satu teori umum menerangkan proses<br />pemerolehan ilmu pengetahuan pada asalnya dikemukakan oleh Gibson dan<br />Vygotsky (Lave, 2004). Seterusnya Lave menejalaskan bahawa teori ini<br />kemudiannya dibangunkan oleh Brown, Collins dan Duguid pada tahun<br />1989. Melalui teori situasi kognitif, Brown, Collins dan Duguid (1989)<br />menegaskan bahawa pembelajaran di kalangan orang dewasa berlaku dalam<br />suatu konteks yang dipengaruhi oleh budaya dan nilai-nilai yang dikongsi<br />38<br />bersama dalam suatu sistem sosial. Sehubungan dengan itu, Brown et.al<br />merumuskan pembelajaran terhasil melalui interaksi dan kerjasama ahli<br />masyarakat.<br />Teori Sosio-budaya mempunyai banyak persamaan dengan dengan Teori<br />Pembelajaran Sosial dan Teori Situasi Kognitif yang telah dibincangkan di<br />atas. Menurut Alfred (2002:5), Teori Sosio-budaya berdasarkan teori yang<br />pembelajaran dan pembangunan yang dikemukakan oleh Vygtosky. Seperti<br />juga Teori Pembelajaran Sosial dan Teori Situasi Kognitif, Teori Sosiobudaya<br />menjelaskan penyertaan dan pembelajaran berasaskan konsep<br />aktiviti dalam kehidupan manusia berlaku dalam suatu konteks budaya yang<br />dijana oleh bahasa dan elemen-elemen sosial yang simbolik. Teori ini<br />menjelaskan bahawa ilmu pengetahuan dan pembelajaran berkait rapat<br />dengan suatu konteks sosial seperti kemudahan, agama, budaya dan<br />interaksi antara ahli masyarakat (Alfred, 2002,). Bagi menyokong Teori<br />Sosio-budaya, Perez (dalam Alfred, 2002) pula menegaskan penyertaan<br />dalam pembelajaran merupakan satu fungsi bagi identiti budaya.<br />Berdasarkan Teori Sosio-budaya, Alfred mengingatkan para pendidik<br />dewasa supaya memahami budaya dan sejarah terlebih dahulu sekiranya<br />berhasrat untuk melaksanakan program pembelajaran dengan berkesan.<br />Secara keseluruhannya, Teori Situasi Koginitif, Teori Pembelajaran Sosial<br />dan Teori Sosio-budaya mempunyai banyak persamaan di antara satu sama<br />lain.<br />39<br />Bersesuaian dengan perspektif daripada Teori Pembelajaran Sosial, Teori<br />Situasi Kognitif dan Teori Sosio-budaya, kesimpulannya pembelajaran<br />dewasa tidak berlaku dalam vakum (Maznah dan Carter, 2000; Merriam dan<br />Caffarella, 1999) tetapi berlaku dalam sesuatu konteks sosial (Lave 2004)<br />yang dipengaruhi oleh pelbagai faktor seperti agama, nilai, budaya dan<br />kemudahan yang terdapat dalam masyarakat (Lave, 2004; Merriam dan<br />Caffarella, 1999; Merriam dan Brockett, 1997). Oleh itu, pembelajaran<br />dalam masyarakat merupakan satu amalan masyarakat (community of<br />practice) yang mana amalan masyarakat terbentuk apabila ahli masyarakat<br />bersama-sama berkongsi ilmu pengetahuan, belajar dan mempraktikkan apa<br />yang dipelajari.<br />2.6 Pola Pembelajaran<br />Menurut Colley et.al (2004) dan Malcom, Hodkinson dan Colley (2003)<br />pola adalah ciri pembelajaran yang antaranya meliputi kandungan, kaedah,<br />tempat, peruntukan masa, tujuan, dan masalah pembelajaran.<br />2.6.1 Kandungan<br />40<br />Berdasarkan kajian oleh Isaac (1999) terhadap penyertaan orang dewasa<br />dalam aktiviti pembelajaran non-formal di beberapa buah gereja di Amerika<br />Syarikat mendapati kandungan pembelajaran adalah keagamaan, kesenian<br />dan kraf tangan, komputer, kewangan, bahasa, sejarah dan kesihatan. Secara<br />lebih khusus, kajian tersebut mendapati pembelajaran agama difokuskan<br />kepada pengajian Bible. Dapatan Isaac disokong oleh dapatan kajian Hale<br />(2004) yang juga mendapati kandungan pembelajaran di gereja adalah<br />berkaitan dengan keagamaan.<br />Mazanah dan Merriam (2000) dalam kajiannya terhadap 19 responden yang<br />berumur lebih dari 60 tahun di Malaysia, mendapati kandungan<br />pembelajaran golongan tersebut adalah tentang kesihatan, keagamaan dan<br />ketuhanan, keluarga dan kemasyarakatan. Mazanah dan Merriam (2000)<br />juga mendapati tidak terdapat garis panduan tentang apa yang harus<br />dipelajari oleh orang dewasa kerana polisi pembelajaran dewasa masih<br />belum digubal sepenuhnya di Malaysia.<br />Collum (2001) dalam kajiannya terhadap pembelajaran non-formal di<br />kalangan penduduk berkulit hitam (African American) yang menyertai<br />kumpulan jalanan di Chicago mendapati kandungan utama pembelajaran<br />adalah berkaitan dengan survival dan cara untuk mendapat sumber<br />kewangan. Manakala Diouf (1998) yang menjalankan kajian di negara<br />Senegal mendapati kandungan pembelajaran non-formal di kalangan<br />41<br />masyarakat petani di negara itu adalah berkaitan keagamaan, pertanian,<br />kesihatan dan pengetahuan yang berkaitan dengan peningkatan profesional<br />bagi pelajar dewasa lelaki. Manakala bagi pelajar dewasa perempuan pula,<br />kandungan pembelajaran tertumpu kepada perkara-perkara yang berkaitan<br />dengan kekeluargaan di samping agama, pertanian dan kesihatan.<br />2.6. 2 Tempat<br />Menurut Heimlich (1996), pelbagai organisasi menjadi tempat untuk<br />melaksanakan aktiviti pembelajaran non-formal dalam masyarakat,<br />antaranya ialah muzium, zoo, pusat sains, akuarium. Rumah ibadat seperti<br />gereja ( Isaac 1999) dan surau serta masjid (Abdullah, 1989; Abdullah,<br />1995) juga merupakan tempat pembelajaran utama bagi pembelajaran nonformal.<br />Seterusnya, Heimlich (1996) berpendapat bahawa tempat<br />pembelajaran seharusnya menyediakan peluang pembelajaran yang boleh<br />menarik minat orang dewasa untuk menyertai program pembelajaran yang<br />dianjurkan. Dari aspek tempat pembelajaran, McGivney (2002)<br />merumuskan bahawa pembelajaran non-formal dalam masyarakat<br />dilaksanakan di local venues yang terbuka kepada semua ahli masyarakat.<br />2.6.3 Bilangan Penyertaan<br />42<br />Orang dewasa ialah individu yang sentiasa sentiasa sibuk (Merriam dan<br />Caffarella, 1999) dengan pekerjaan dan pelbagai tanggungjawab lain.<br />Dalam konteks ini, Bierema (2002:69) menegaskan sebahagian besar orang<br />dewasa memperuntukkan masa untuk pekerjaan sebagai punca pendapatan. .<br />Oleh itu, peruntukan masa untuk pembelajaran sangat dipengaruhi oleh<br />faktor ini. Berdasarkan kajian oleh Jabatan Statistik Kanada, sebilangan<br />besar responden memperuntukkan sekurang-kurangnya enam jam seminggu<br />untuk pembelajaran non-formal. Berdasarkan kajian di Kanada, Livingstone<br />(2000) melaporkan terdapat pengurangan dari segi masa yang<br />diperuntukkan untuk pembelajaran dengan peningkatan umur seseorang.<br />2.6.4 Tujuan<br />Kajian untuk mengenalpasti tujuan penyertaan dalam pembelajaran dewasa<br />telah lama bermula serta mendapat perhatian ramai penyelidik dan telah<br />lama bermula. Menurut Merriam dan Caffarella (1999), kajian untuk<br />mengenalpasti tujuan penyertaan dalam aktiviti pembelajaran dewasa telah<br />dicetuskan oleh Houle pada tahun 1961. Walau bagaimanapun kebanyakan<br />penyelidikan tertumpu kepada tujuan penyertaan di institusi pengajian tinggi<br />dan tempat kerja. Penyelidikan Houle (1961) telah memberi impak yang<br />sangat signifikan kepada perkembangan penyelidikan untuk mengenalpasti<br />tujuan penyertaan (Merriam dan Caffarella, 1999). Sebagai contoh, Fujita-<br />Starck (1996) menyifatkan kajian Houle tersebut sebagai simbol bermulanya<br />43<br />kajian empirikal bagi mengenalpasti tujuan penyertaan. Seterusnya, Fujita–<br />Starck (1996) menegaskan Houle memberi suatu rangsangan yang sangat<br />besar kepada penyelidik-penyelidik lain untuk memperkembangkan<br />penyelidikan dalam bidang ini. Mengikut Fujita-Starck (1996), berdasarkan<br />kajian tersebut, Houle membahagikan tujuan penyertaan kepada tiga<br />orientasi iaitu; (1) orientasi matlamat, (2) orientasi aktiviti, dan (3) orientasi<br />pembelajaran.<br />Dalam kajian yang melibatkan 330 orang dewasa yang menyertai aktiviti<br />pembelajaran di gereja, Isaac (1999) mendapati tujuan penyertaan dalam<br />program pembelajaran tersebut adalah untuk memenuhi tuntutan agama,<br />memenuhi minat untuk belajar, tanggungjawab sosial dan interaksi sosial.<br />Manakala kajian oleh Heilizer (2003) mendapati tujuan penyertaan orang<br />dewasa dalam pembelajaran di Muzium kerana minat personal, rangsangan,<br />interaksi sosial dan tanggungjawab kepada masyarakat.<br />Dalam kajian terhadap 60 orang dewasa yang menyertai aktiviti<br />pembelajaran non-formal di negeri China, Wang (1999) mendapati tujuan<br />penyertaan adalah untuk melaksanakan tugas dengan lebih baik,<br />meningkatkan tahap intelektual, mendapatkan pekerjaan, bersedia untuk<br />menghadapi persaingan sosial, kesihatan dan untuk kenaikan pangkat.<br />Carre (2000) dalam kajiannya terhadap 1548 peserta yang mengikuti<br />program pendidikan dewasa di Perancis membahagikan tujuan penyertaan<br />44<br />kepada tiga kategori utama iaitu memperoleh kecekapan, mengenal diri<br />sendiri dan pembentukan projek.<br />Berdasarkan kajian di tiga buah gereja di Amerika Syarikat, Isaac (1999)<br />mendapati tujuan orang dewasa menyertai aktiviti pembelajaran di gereja<br />tersebut adalah: -<br />1. untuk membiasakan dengan budaya.<br />2. untuk pembangunan spiritual dan keagamaan.<br />3. untuk memenuhi minat belajar.<br />4. supaya lebih bersedia menghadapi cabaran.<br />5. untuk bersama keluarga.<br />6. untuk berkhidmat kepada orang lain.<br />Nik Hairi (1998) dalam kajiannya terhadap penyertaan dalam aktiviti<br />pembelajaran dan latihan di kalangan penduduk Bandar Baru Bangi,<br />Selangor melihat penyertaan berdasarkan tiga perspektif iaitu pembangunan<br />personal, pembangunan kerjaya dan pembangunan Masyarakat. Kajian ini<br />mendapati tujuan penyertaan dalam konteks pembangunan personal ialah;<br />(1) meningkatkan kualiti diri, (2) minat, (3) keperluan rumahtangga, (4)<br />persedian kerja, (5) meningkatkan kualiti kerja, (6) arahan majikan, dan (7)<br />mengisi masa lapang.<br />45<br />Dalam konteks pembangunan kerjaya pula, Nik Hairi mendapati enam<br />tujuan penyertaan iaitu: (1) meningkatkan kualiti kerja, (2) arahan majikan,<br />(3) pembangunan tugas, (4) mendapat input baru, (5) keperluan tugas, dan<br />(6) meningkatkan kualiti diri. Penyelidik ini seterusnya mendapati enam<br />tujuan penyertaan dalam konteks pembangunan masyarakat iaitu: (1)<br />tanggungjawab sosial, (2) tanggungjawab agama, (3) meningkatkan kualiti<br />diri, (4) minat, (5) keperluan tugas, dan (6) memahami masyarakat.<br />2.6. 5 Masalah<br />Mengikut Hall dan Donaldson (1997), terdapat banyak kajian terdahulu<br />dalam literatur yang cuba menerangkan masalah pembelajaran. Seterusnya,<br />Hall dan Donaldson (1997) bependapat antara penyelidikan yang terawal<br />adalah oleh Johnstone dan Rivera pada tahun 1965. Dalam kajian tersebut,<br />Johnstone dan Rivera (dalam Hall dan Donaldson, 1997) mengenalpasti<br />dua faktor penghalang atau masalah utama kepada pembelajaran adalah kos<br />dan masa.<br />Kajian oleh Wang (1999) yang melibatkan 60 responden yang menyertai<br />pembelajaran non-formal di China mendapati tiga masalah pembelajaran<br />utama yang dihadapi oleh pelajar dewasa adalah; (1) kekangan masa, (2)<br />kekurangan sumber pembelajaran, dan (3) masalah kewangan. Hayes (1988)<br />46<br />dalam kajiannya terhadap 160 orang dewasa yang mempunyai kebolehan<br />literasi rendah di kawasan bandar mengenalpasti lima faktor penghalang<br />kepada penyertaan iaitu keyakinan diri yang rendah, halangan sosial,<br />halangan situasi, sikap negatif terhadap kelas dan tidak memberi keutamaan<br />kepada pembelajaran. Dalam kajian terhadap 175 responden yang berumur<br />18 tahun atau lebih, Beder (1990) mendapati empat faktor utama yang<br />menghalang penyertaan dalam aktiviti Pendidikan Dewasa Asas (Adult<br />Basic Education, ABE) iaitu persepsi yang rendah terhadap keperluan<br />pendidikan, persepsi bahawa penyertaan memerlukan tumpuan yang<br />menyeluruh, tidak suka kepada persekolahan dan halangan situasi.<br />Melalui kajian dengan menggunakan kaedah kualitatif yang melibatkan 22<br />orang guru, Lohman (2000), mengenalpasti empat masalah kepada<br />pembelajaran informal di tempat kerja iaitu kekurangan masa, sumbersumber<br />pembelajaran berdekatan yang terhad, kekurangan ganjaran<br />terhadap pembelajaran dan kuasa membuat keputusan yang sangat terhad di<br />kalangan pentadbir sekolah. Kajian tersebut mendapati kekurangan masa<br />merupakan masalah pembelajaran paling utama. Tan Kui Kian dan<br />Mazanah (2001), yang menjalankan kajian terhadap 337 anggota Institut<br />Kimia Malaysia (IKM) mendapati halangan terhadap penyertaan dalam<br />aktiviti pendidikan lanjutan dan latihan anjuran Institut Kimia Malaysia<br />adalah kekangan keluarga, kualiti program tidak memuaskan, kurang<br />47<br />sokongan, kos, program yang tidak relevan, kekangan kerja, dan kurang<br />keutamaan kepada aktiviti yang berkaitan kerja.<br />Berdasarkan kajian-kajian lepas seperti yang dibincangkan diatas,<br />ringkasnyanya dapat disimpulkan bahawa pola pembelajaran non-formal<br />bersifat informal. Ini selaras dengan pendapat Malcom et.al (2003) yang<br />menegaskan bahawa pembelajaran di kalangan orang dewasa adalah bersifat<br />informal, berasaskan kemasyarakatan (social in nature) dan dipengaruhi<br />oleh suatu konteks sosial.<br />2.7 Ringkasan<br />Ringkasnya, pembelajaran merupakan satu proses yang berterusan dan<br />tidak terhad kepada kanak-kanak tetapi menjangkau kepada orang dewasa<br />kerana orang dewasa perlu belajar untuk menghadapi pelbagai masalah<br />dalam kehidupan. Sehubungan itu, pembelajaran dewasa merupakan satu<br />bentuk pembelajaran yang sangat penting dewasa ini. Pembelajaran<br />dewasa berlaku secara formal, non-formal dan informal di pelbagai lokasi<br />seperti institusi pengajian tinggi, tempat kerja dan dalam masyarakat.<br />Pembelajaran non-formal dalam masyarakat Melayu di Malaysia<br />direkodkan bermula seawal abad ke-14 melalui penyebaran agama Islam<br />apabila institusi pembelajaran non-formal seperti masjid dan surau<br />48<br />didirikan untuk mengendalikan kelas-kelas agama. Sehubungan itu,<br />aktiviti pembelajaran non-formal dalam masyarakat berpusat di rumahrumah<br />ibadat seperti masjid dan surau. Model-model penyertaan dan<br />kajian-kajian terdahulu mencadangkan bahawa penyertaan dipengaruhi<br />oleh faktor sosio-demografi dan faktor psikologi.<br />Berdasarkan perbincangan di atas, Jadual 2.2 menunjukkan ringkasan<br />literatur yang berkaitan dengan persoalan kajian.<br />Jadual 2.2: Ringkasan literatur<br />Perkara Ringkasan Literatur<br />Pembelajaran<br />dewasa<br />Program pembelajaran yang<br />dikhususkan untuk orang dewasa<br />Darkenwald dan<br />Merriam (1982), Long<br />(1987), Brookfield<br />(1986), Rogers (1993),<br />Merriam dan Brockett<br />(1997).<br />Tujuan<br />pembelajaran<br />dewasa<br />Pendidikan kali kedua<br />Pendidikan peranan<br />Pendidikan vokasional<br />Pendidikan untuk pembangunan<br />personal<br />Titmus (1989)<br />Mazanah dan Norhayati<br />(1997).<br />Lokasi Institusi pembelajaran formal,<br />tempat kerja dan masyarakat<br />Livingstone (2000).<br />Bentuk<br />pembelajaran<br />dewasa<br />Formal, non-formal dan informal Minnis (2006),<br />Khankhow (2005),<br />Livingstone (2000),<br />Mazanah (2001),<br />Merriam dan Caffarella<br />(1999), Merriam dan<br />Brockett (1997), Combs<br />et.al (1973)<br />49<br />Jadual 2.2 : Ringkasan literatur (sambungan)<br />Pembelajaran<br />non-formal<br />Pembelajaran yang dilaksanakan<br />di luar dari sistem pembelajaran<br />formal<br />McGivney (2002),<br />Stein dan Imel (2002),<br />Mazanah (2001),<br />Livingstone (2000),<br />Merriam dan Caffarella<br />(1999).<br />Model<br />penyertaaan<br />Penyertaan dipengaruhi oleh<br />faktor sisio-demografi, sikap<br />terhadap pembelajaran dan<br />penghargaan kendiri<br />Model Interaksi<br />Psikososial Darkenwald<br />dan Merriam (1982)<br />Teori<br />pembelajaran<br />dewasa<br />Pembelajaran berlaku dalam suatu<br />konteks sosial. Ia dipengaruhi<br />oleh nilai, budaya, agama dan<br />kemudahan dalam sesuatu<br />masyarakat<br />Teori Pembelajaran<br />Sosial (Bandura, 1977)<br />Teori Situasi kognitif<br />(Brown et.al,1989).<br />Teori Sosio-budaya<br />Vygotsky (1987)<br />Pola<br />pembelajaran<br />Non-formal<br />Pembelajaran non-formal bersifat<br />informal, contextualise dan<br />authentic.<br />Stein dan Imel (2002),<br />Hale (2004), Isaac<br />(1999), Mazanah dan<br />Merriam (2000).Al-Mansor Abu saidhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09355698983918954375noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8427095828809940450.post-18214777908013597122010-10-13T04:57:00.001-07:002010-10-13T04:57:42.465-07:00Ex Post FactoHow can we determine that the attribute variables affect the dependent variable. Does gender affect student achievement? Does the lack of parental affection encourage students to drug addiction?<br /><br />The arguments for the attribute variables can not be solved by using experimental methods. Experimental methods allow researchers to collect and manipulate the independent variables and observing the effect on the dependent variable. How can we process the independent variables to observe a gender effect on the dependent variable, while the achievement of gender has existed in a student? How can we treat the variable parents love, while love was born naturally without force?<br /><br />Most of the education variable is the variable attributes. Attribute variables are variables that are inherent in the social unit before the study began. Some examples of variable attributes that are often studied is the motivation, intelligence, gender and environment students. Difficult to attribute variables analyzed and controlled. Experimental studies can not be used because we are not able to process and control the variable attributes.<br /><br />Ex post facto study is suitable to study the attributes of variables. Ex post facto studies are often used to study the relationship between the variables when researchers are unable to process the independent variables. For example, we can not determine with certainty whether the variables can affect the love of their academic performance because experimental studies can not be done. What can be done is to examine the relationship between the parents love their children and academic achievement. If a significant relationship exists between love and academic achievement of their children, bolen researchers concluded that the relationship exists between loving parents and academic achievement of their children.<br /><br />Because the independent variable attributes can not be processed by the investigators, researchers are not able to say causal relationship. In the above example, researchers can not say that lack of parental love and lead students to achieve academic achievement is low. We can not accurately determine whether the lack of love causes of students' academic achievement of low achieving or low academic achievement of students causing less affection from parents.Al-Mansor Abu saidhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09355698983918954375noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8427095828809940450.post-22970846859051367582010-10-13T04:55:00.000-07:002010-10-13T04:56:08.084-07:00Penyelidikan Ex Post FactoPenyelidikan Ex Post Facto<br /><br />Bagaimanakah kita dapat menentukan bahawa variabel bebas atribut mendatangkan kesan pada variabel bersandar. Adakah jantina pelajar mempengaruhi pencapaian pelajar? Adakah kurangnya kasih sayang ibu bapa mendorong pelajar menagih najis dadah?<br /><br />Persoalan-persoalan mengenai variabel-variabel atribut tidak dapat diselesaikan dengan menggunakan kaedah eksperimen. Kaedah eksperimen membenarkan penyelidik mengolah dan memanipulasi variabel-variabel bebas dan mencerap kesannya pada variabel bersandar. Bagaimana kita boleh mengolah variabel bebas jantina bagi mencerap kesannya terhadap variabel bersandar pencapaian sedangkan jantina telah wujud pada seseorang pelajar? Bagaimana kita boleh mengolah variabel kasih sayang ibu-bapa, sedangkan kasih sayang lahir secara semula jadi tanpa paksaan?<br /><br />Kebanyakan variabel pendidikan adalah variabel atribut. Variabel atribut ialah variabel yang telah sedia wujud dalam unit sosial sebelum sesuatu kajian dimulakan. Sebahagian contoh variabel atribut yang sering dikaji adalah motivasi, kecerdasan, jantina dan persekitaran pelajar. Variabel atribut sukar diolah dan dikawal. Kajian eksperimen tidak dapat digunakan kerana kita tidak berupaya untuk mengolah dan mengawal variabel atribut.<br /><br />Kajian ex post facto sesuai digunakan untuk mengkaji variabel atribut. Kajian ex post facto sering digunakan bagi mengkaji hubungan antara variabel-variabel bilamana penyelidik tidak dapat mengolah variabel bebas. Misalnya, kita tidak dapat menentukan dengan pasti sama ada variabel kasih sayang boleh mempengaruhi pencapaian akademik pelajar kerana kajian eksperimen tidak dapat dilakukan . Apa yang boleh dijalankan ialah mengkaji hubungan kasih sayang ibu bapa dengan pencapaian akademik anak-anaknya. Sekiranya hubungan bererti wujud antara kasih sayang dengan pencapaian akademik anak-anak mereka, penyelidik bolen membuat kesimpulan bahawa wujud perkaitan antara kasih sayang ibu bapa dengan pencapaian akademik anak-anak mereka.<br /><br />Oleh kerana variabel bebas atribut tidak dapat diolah oleh penyelidik, penyelidik tidak berupaya untuk mengatakan hubungan sebab-musabab. Dalam contoh di atas, penyelidik tidak dapat mengatakan bahawa kurangnya kasih sayang dan ibu bapa menyebabkan pelajar mencapai pencapaian akademik yang rendah. Kita tidak dapat menentukan dengan tepat sama ada kurang kasih sayang menyebabkan pelajar mencapai pencapaian akademik yang rendah atau pencapaian akademik yang rendah menyebabkan pelajar kurang mendapat kasih sayang daripada ibu bapa.Al-Mansor Abu saidhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09355698983918954375noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8427095828809940450.post-68340119476732204082010-10-12T17:34:00.000-07:002010-10-12T17:35:42.369-07:00Cabaran dan Halangan Membangunkan Usahawan Bumiputera BerjayaPendahuluan<br />Keusahawanan di Malaysia bermula sejak awal zaman Kesultanan Melaka lagi apabila penduduk tempatan berurus niaga dengan pedagang asing. Apabila British memerintah Tanah Melayu, mereka telah menukar struktur sosial dengan menjalankan pemerintahan “Pecah dan Perintah”. Dengan ini, kaum Melayu dilantik pentadbir dan bekerja dalam sektor pertanian, kaum Cina bekerja di lombong dan berniaga, manakala kaum India pula bekerja di sektor perladangan. Hasilnya, kaum cina lebih ke hadapan dalam soal perniagaan berbanding kaum Melayu dan kaum India.<br /><br />Selepas kemerdekaan, kerajaan Malaysia mula menyedari betapa pentingnya keusahawanan kepada kaum Individu, masyarakat dan negara dan bagaimana bidang ini menyumbang kepada keamanan negara. Semenjak itu, kerajaan telah memfokuskan kepada keusahawanan sehingga sekarang. Dasar Ekonomi Baru (1971-1990), Dasar Pembangunan Negara (1990-2000) dan Wawasan 2020, adalah memberi sokongan terhadap pembangunan keusahawanan di Malaysia. Kerajaan tidak hanya memberikan galakan terhadap pembangunan keusahawanan malah memberikan galakan pengiktirafan kepada keusahawanan. Kementerian Pembangunan Usahawan dan Koperasi yang ditubuhkan pada 8 Mei 1995 berperanan sebagai agensi utama pembangunan usahawan Bumiputera. Objektif utama penubuhan kementerian ini adalah untuk menyediakan persekitaran yang dapat membantu dan menggalakkan pembangunan usahawan tulen yang berkualiti, berdaya maju, berdaya tahan dan berdaya saing dalam semua sektor serta memupuk budaya keusahawanan dan koperasi di kalangan rakyat Malaysia.<br /><br />Namun begitu, peningkatan pendapatan kaum Bumiputera masih belum memuaskan kerana ia masih agak ketinggalan berbanding kaum lain di Malaysia (Norasmah, 2002). Berikutan itu, kerajaan Malaysia perlu memberi tumpuan kepada kaum Bumiputera untuk meningkatkan pendapatan dan taraf hidup mereka. Sehingga kini dorongan dan galakan kerajaan kepada kaum Bumiputera supaya melibatkan diri dalam bidang keusahawanan, terutamanya industri kecil dan sederhana, mewujudkan tindak balas yang positif.<br /><br />Cabaran Usahawan Bumiputera<br />Seperti biasa, saban tahun negara akan bertukar pemimpin dan bertukar Belanjawan dan Pelan. Pelbagai langkah telah diambil oleh pemimpin untuk menolong kaum Bumiputera amnya, usahawan Bumiputera khususnya. Namun begitu, kaum Bumiputera masih berada di takuk lama dan hanya sedikit peningkatan kita dalam ekonomi negara.<br /><br />Bangsa Melayu terlalu leka dan mengambil mudah pembabitan dalam bidang ekonomi. Ekonomi adalah sangat penting untuk dikuasai jika kaum Bumiputera ingin terus maju. Kaum Bumiputera mempunyai kuasa beli (buying power) terbesar dalam negara ini, namun bangsa lain yang menikmatinya. <br /><br />Sebagaimana politik, kaum Bumiputera turut berdepan dengan dilema ekonomi yang rencam. Ketika kaum lain menikmati kek ekonomi negara dalam peratusan yang besar, usahawan Melayu dan bumiputera masih lagi bergelut untuk meneruskan survival.<br /><br />Kita sebenarnya tidak memerlukan statistik untuk melihat di mana kedudukan orang Melayu dan bumiputera dalam persekitaran ekonomi semasa. Meskipun merupakan kaum majoriti dan pengguna yang terbesar, namun penguasaan ekonomi kaum Melayu dan bukan Melayu jelas tidak seimbang.<br /><br />Hanya segelintir kecil sahaja usahawan Bumiputera yang terlibat dalam ekonomi kritikal dan bernilai tinggi. Selebihnya, ramai yang menjalankan perniagaan kecil-kecilan yang keuntungannya tidak banyak merubah taraf hidup kaum Bumiputera itu sendiri. Kerana itu adalah penting untuk usahawan bumiputera ini terus digalakkan untuk terbabit dengan lebih aktif dalam persekitaran ekonomi semasa. Dari sudut peluang dan kemudahan misalnya, usahawan bumiputera memiliki banyak kelebihan berbanding usahawan bukan bumiputera.<br /><br />Usaha Kerajaan dalam membangunkan usahawan Bumiputera<br />Banyak bantuan dari sudut galakan, modal, lokasi berniaga dan sebagainya disediakan sama ada secara langsung oleh kerajaan atau menerusi agensi-agensi berkaitan. Apa yang tinggal hanyalah sejauh mana keberanian usahawan Melayu dan bumiputera untuk terjun ke dunia perniagaan yang berskala besar dan bertaraf antarabangsa.<br /><br />Pelbagai perubahan dijangka akan berlaku dalam arena perniagaan di Malaysia. Menurut Norhashim (1994) perniagaan kecil di Malaysia telah meningkatkan jumlah peluang pekerjaan dan pembangunan usahawan. Di sini jelas bahawa perniagaan bersaiz kecil dan sederhana amat penting dalam menyumbang terhadap pembangunan negara. Aliran pertumbuhan ekonomi di Malaysia telah menggalakkan pembangunan industri kecil dan sederhana (IKS), walau bagaimanapun wujud ketidakseimbangan dalam pegangan ekonomi antara kaum di Malaysia. Humam (1992) mendapati penduduk bukan Bumiputera telah menguasai sektor ekonomi, dan matlamat Dasar Ekonomi Baru gagal dicapai sepenuhnya (Malaysia, 2001). Walau bagaimanapun, hasil usaha kerajaan bersama dengan agensi sokongan kerajaan, pengagihan pendapatan keseluruhan di kalangan isi rumah di Malaysia telah bertambah baik dalam tempoh Rancangan Malaysia ke-9 (Norasmah, 2009).<br /><br />Pihak kerajaan telah melakukan berbagai usaha ke arah memupuk dan mengembangkan asas keusahawanan di kalangan bumiputera bagi melahirkan usahawan yang berdaya maju dan berdaya tahan. Antaranya melalui penglibatan mereka secara langsung dan aktif dalam dunia perniagaan. Pelbagai agensi telah disediakan untuk membantu usahawan Bumiputera. Banyak tabung yang bertujuan khusus untuk membangunkan usahawan bumiputera telah ditubuhkan. Antaranya ialah Tabung Usahawan Baru, Tabung Industri Bumiputera, dan Tabung Usahawan Kecil yang semuanya bertujuan membantu usahawan kecil dan sederhana (Zaidatol et at. 1998).<br /><br />Menurut Norasmah (2002), salah satu kementerian yang berfungsi untuk membangunkan<br />usahawan Bumiputera ialah Kementerian Pembangunan Usahawan. Kementerian ini bukan sahaja ingin membangunkan usahawan bumiputera tetapi ingin melahirkan usahawan yang berkualiti, berpotensi serta berupaya membentuk masyarakat Perdagangan dan Perindustrian (MPP) seperti yang dihasratkan dalam Wawasan 2020.<br /><br />Halangan Pembangunan Usahawan Bumiputera <br />Terdapat beberapa kelemahan usahawan seperti kekurangan modal, kekurangan kemahiran pemasaran, kekurangan pengetahuan dan teknologi, kekurangan pekerja mahir,<br />kekurangan kemahiran dan pengetahuan pengurusan dan ketidakmampuan untuk mendapat premis perniagaan yang sesuai (Zaidatol dan Habibah, 1997). Dapatan Humam<br />dan rakan-rakan (1992) menunjukkan faktor yang sama juga telah menyebabkan kegagalan perniagaan iaitu pengurusan yang lemah, masalah pemasaran dan kewangan, faktor perundangan dan peraturan serta faktor peribadi dan keusahawanan.<br /><br />Walaupun sistem pendidikan secara beransur-ansur mengubah nilai dan sikap Bumiputera ke arah perubahan positif, masih terdapat beberapa golongan usahawan Bumiputera yang masih ketinggalan dari segi daya cipta, amalan perniagaan yang baik dan semangat bekerja yang gigih. Budaya niaga keusahawanan dan kesanggupan menanggung risiko masih belum dihayati sepenuhnya oleh masyarakat peniaga Bumiputera. Usaha kerajaan untuk membantu kaum Bumiputera telah banyak dilaksanakan, dan pendidikan perdagangan dan keusahawanan telah lama wujud di Malaysia (Shahril, 1993). Kementerian Pendidikan juga memainkan peranan penting mewujudkan pelapis usahawan melalui program seperti Usahawan Muda dan Briged Usahawan (Zaidatol et at. 1998).<br /><br />Sieh (1990) dalam kajiannya tentang profil usahawan Malaysia mendapati usahawan menghadapi masalah dalam bidang kewangan kerana mereka kurang pengetahuan. Pandangan yang sama diberikan oleh Timmons (1985) apabila beliau mengatakan asas pendidikan keusahawanan adalah kemahiran teknikal dan kewangan. Manakala Hess (1987) dan Kent (1990) menyarankan aspek pengurusan dan pemasaran adalah penting untuk kejayaan usahawan. Memandangkan pesatnya perkembangan keusahawanan sekarang ini, adalah penting untuk dijalankan kajian bagi mengenal pasti tahap keupayaan usahawan Bumiputera di Malaysia setelah kerajaan mempergiat usaha untuk membangunkan keusahawanan. <br /><br /><br />Kemahiran Usahawan Bumiputera<br />Dalam kajian yang dilakukan oleh Zaidatol Akmaliah Lope Pirie & Habibah Elias (2004), usahawan bumiputera mempunyai keupayaan yang tinggi dalam membentuk hubungan manusia yang baik, dan membentuk kemahiran komunikasi secara lisan dan tulisan. Dapatan tersebut menyokong pandangan Fatley (1990) dan McCannon et at. (2000) yang menyarankan komunikasi berbentuk tulisan dan lisan adalah penting dan menjadi asas kepada pembentukan kemahiran yang lain di tempat kerja. Womble et at. (2000) pula mendapati kemahiran interpersonal dan hubungan manusia merupakan sesuatu yang amat penting di tempat kerja hari ini. Zaidatol et al. (2000) juga telah mengenal pasti kepentingan kemahiran komunikasi dan hubungan manusia di tempat kerja untuk kejayaan sesuatu kerjaya. <br /><br />Mereka juga mendapati kemahiran keusahawanan dalam aspek pengurusan dimiliki oleh kebanyakan usahawan bumiputera dan keadaan ini amat bertepatan dengan pandangan Zaidatol et al. (2000) yang mengatakan bahawa perniagaan yang berjaya selalunya melibatkan beberapa kemahiran yang lain selain daripada aspek fungsian perniagaan sahaja. Luft (1986) menyarankan prinsip hubungan manusia yang diperlukan untuk kejayaan kerjaya adalah berkaitan dengan pembentukan konsep kendiri yang positif, menerima kritikan, menyelesaikan konflik, menangani perubahan, menangani diskriminasi dan prejudis dan memahami sumber nilai, nilai kendiri dan menerima nilai orang lain. Usahawan bumiputera didapati mempunyai kemahiran mengurus dan membentuk hubungan manusia yang baik sebagai kemahiran keusahawanan yang paling penting dan kedua-dua kemahiran tersebut merupakan kemahiran yang paling tinggi kebolehan usahawan melaksanakannya. <br /><br />Walau bagaimanapun terdapat perbezaan dari segi kebolehan usahawan bumiputera dalam mengendalikan aspek kewangan dan pemasaran. Walaupun secara keseluruhan didapati usahawan Bumiputera telah mempunyai kelulusan dalam bidang perniagaan dan telah mengikuti kursus dalam bidang pemasaran, namun kebanyakan daripada mereka masih kurang berkeupayaan dalam melaksanakan kemahiran kewangan dan pemasaran yang mereka sendiri sedar akan kepentingannya. <br /><br />Satu kajian yang dilakukan oleh Zaidatol Akmaliah Lope Pihie & Habibah Elias (2004) terhadap usahawan-usahawan Bumiputera yang bernaung di bawah Dewan Perniagaan Melayu telah mendapati bahawa 55% usahawan Bumiputera telah pun berkecimpung dalam dunia perniagaan melebihi 10 tahun. Walaupun perniagaan mereka merupakan perniagaan kecil-kecilan (72% mempunyai pekerja kurang daripada 20 orang), mereka masih menghadapi masalah utama untuk mengutip akaun boleh terima, iaitu seramai 61% belum mampu untuk mengatasi masalah tersebut. Di samping itu juga didapati 61% kurang berkemampuan untuk menjalankan kajian pasaran, 60% belum begitu mampu menyediakan laporan kewangan dan seramai 58% kurang berkebolehan untuk menentukan arah aliran produk. Ini membimbangkan kerana kebanyakan daripada kemahiran perakaunan dan pemasaran yang dianggap penting untuk kejayaan masih lagi belum dikuasai sepenuhnya oleh usahawan Bumiputera. Apakah faktor utama yang menghasilkan keadaan ini? Dapatan juga menunjukkan hanya 26% usahawan telah berpeluang mengikuti latihan keusahawanan selama enam (6) bulan dan lebih. Kebanyakannya (57%) hanya telah berpeluang mengikuti kursus keusahawanan kurang daripada (6) bulan. Fenomena ini mungkin mempengaruhi persepsi mereka terhadap keupayaan melaksanakan kemahiran keusahawanan terutama dalam bidang pemasaran. Seramai 17% pula tidak pernah mengikuti latihan langsung dan hanya 44% pernah mengikuti kursus berbentuk perakaunan atau kewangan. Ilmu pemasaran didapati amat penting untuk usahawan bumiputera. Keputusan yang dibuat dalam aspek pemasaran selalunya mempengaruhi usaha mereka dalam merancang, menjalankan dan menguruskan perniagaannya. Usahawan Bumiputera hendaklah mengoperasikan perniagaannya berlandaskan amalan pemasaran yang betul. <br /><br />Menurut Zaidatol et at. (1997) terdapat banyak syarikat yang muflis kerana pemiliknya tidak mempunyai pengetahuan yang cukup dalam menangani keadaan pasaran yang sentiasa berubah. Tambah beliau lagi perniagaan hari ini hendaklah berorientasikan pemasaran. Syarikat yang ingin membentuk dan mengeluarkan barangan tanpa mengambil kira kemudahan dan keperluan pelanggan akan menghadapi masalah. Dengan mengambil kira perkembangan perniagaan secara global aplikasi konsep pemasaran ini perlu diberi tumpuan yang lebih.<br /><br />Mengikut Drucker (1963) dua fungsi utama untuk sesebuah perniagaan ialah pemasaran dan inovasi. Pandangan ini juga disokong oleh Barnes, Pynn dan Noonam (1982) bahawa<br />kebanyakan firma gagal setiap tahun kerana mereka tidak berupaya untuk menentukan sasaran pasaran. Ini juga dipersetujui oleh Cohen dan Reddich (1981) bahawa kegagalan sesuatu perniagaan itu adalah hasil daripada cara pemasaran yang salah. Memandangkan usahawan dalam kajian ini berskala kecil, Tootelian dan Goedeka (1985) pernah menyatakan bahawa sepatutnya mereka yang berkecimpung dalam perniagaan yang begini mendapat kelebihan dalam aspek: perkhidmatan pelanggan secara peribadi, pengetahuan tentang pelanggan dan pasaran, hubungan rapat dengan komuniti, pendekatan secara peribadi dengan pekerja dan pengurusan yang anjal. Malangnya usahawan bumiputera dalam kajian ini tidak menunjukkan ciri-ciri yang positif dalam menguasai kemahiran pemasaran walaupun situasi atau persekitaran yang disediakan mampu mengarah mereka ke arah keberkesanan yang lebih tinggi. Malahan dalam senarai sepuluh kemahiran yang paling penting mengikut persepsi usahawan hanya satu kemahiran sahaja berkaitan dengan pemasaran iaitu 'menentukan keperluan pelanggan'. Pemeringkatan yang rendah kepada aktiviti pemasaran oleh usahawan menunjukkan usahawan kurang faham dan tidak memberi tumpuan yang cukup kepada usaha pemasaran yang penting untuk kejayaan. Begitu juga dalam aspek kewangan, masalah utama usahawan Bumiputera ialah untuk mengutip akaun boleh terima. Tate (1977) juga<br />mendapati salah satu penyebab kepada kegagalan dalam perniagaan ialah kegagalan usahawan mengutip akaun boleh terima. Pandangan ini disokong oleh Diffley (1983) yang mendapati kemahiran 'mengutip akaun boleh terima merupakan kemahiran yang paling penting untuk usahawan di Kansas. Aspek lain yang ketara pentingnya dalam pengendalian perniagaan adalah pengurusan kewangan, belanjawan dan penyediaan penyata aliran tunai.<br /><br />Kesemua kemahiran ini amat diperlukan tetapi usahawan Bumiputera tidak mempunyai keupayaan yang tinggi dalam hal ini. Kemahiran-kemahiran ini adalah penting untuk menjamin kejayaan sesebuah perniagaan (Kiesner 1990). Kepentingan kemahiran pemasaran dan kewangan ini tidak dapat dinafikan lagi. Beberapa kajian lepas seperti oleh Mc Ewen (1990), Hess (1987) dan Clouse (1990) telah merumuskan bahawa kedua-dua aspek ini berkait rapat. Misalnya Clouse (1990) menyatakan bahawa kepentingan membuat keputusan dalam pemasaran adalah amat tinggi bagi seseorang usahawan. Beliau juga menekankan kepentingan aspek kewangan terutama untuk memahami aliran tunai dan menganalisis untung dan rugi. Manakala Hess (1987) pula menyatakan aspek jualan dan pemasaran mendahului senarai utama tugas seseorang usahawan diikuti oleh kemahiran pengurusan kewangan. Kohn (1985) pula percaya kegagalan perniagaan itu disebabkan oleh kurang pengalaman usahawan dalam pengurusan, usahawan tidak kompeten, kekurangan modal, strategi pemasaran yang salah, serta rekod dan prosedur perakaunan yang tidak lengkap.<br /><br />Memandangkan seramai 92% usahawan Bumiputera merasakan latihan keusahawanan adalah penting, dan mereka telah mula sedar akan kepentingan sesuatu kemahiran tertentu maka adalah lebih baik sekiranya mereka diberi peluang sewajarnya untuk mengikuti program latihan dan pembangunan usahawan yang sempurna. Program latihan itu perlulah bukan sekadar pendedahan sahaja tetapi mempelajari selok-beloknya. Program latihan keusahawanan ini perlu diubahsuai pelaksanaannya seperti menggunakan kaedah berbentuk pengalaman atau 'experiential' dan berorientasikan tindakan untuk menepati keperluan dan kehendak spesifik usahawan bagi menjadikan seseorang itu bertambah maju dan tidak ketinggalan dalam segala bidang. Kaedah ini penting kerana untuk mempelajari aspek perakaunan yang spesifik adalah lebih sukar jika kaedah yang digunakan tidak tepat. Ini semua akan dapat membantu mengecilkan jurang jumlah usahawan berjaya dan yang gagal. Seharusnya kemahiran keusahawanan yang penting dan perlu dikuasai dapat dipelajari secara formal atau tidak formal sebelum mula menceburkan diri lagi. Kemahiran tersebut dapat dipertingkatkan penguasaannya secara beransur-ansur setelah berkecimpung dalam dunia perniagaan.<br /><br />Rumusan Dan Cadangan<br />Peluang untuk mengikuti latihan perlu ditingkatkan terutama untuk mempelajari dengan mendalam aspek kewangan dan pemasaran yang dianggap penting untuk terus berjaya. Pendidikan yang diterima masih belum mencukupi. Walaupun usahawan Bumiputera telah lama menceburkan diri dalam bidang perniagaan secara amnya kemahiran keusahawanan mereka tidak tinggi tetapi bertaraf sederhana sahaja. Ini menggambarkan bahawa pengalaman sahaja tidak memadai dalam meningkatkan pengetahuan usahawan.<br /><br />Pengalaman dan pendidikan yang dipunyai oleh usahawan Bumiputera tidak menjamin pertambahan ilmu dalam mengendalikan perniagaan mereka secara berkesan. Ini terbukti<br />apabila didapati lebih 50% usahawan tidak mempunyai kemahiran yang tinggi dalam melaksanakan kemahiran yang dianggap 'routine' dalam menjalankan sesebuah perniagaan. Keberkesanan agensi yang menyediakan program dan pakej latihan keusahawanan terutama yang melatih usahawan perlu dikemas kini dan dinilai. Memandangkan 92% merasakan latihan keusahawanan ini penting untuk mereka maka pelaksanaan dari segi kaedah penyampaian dalam program pembangunan usahawan hendaklah berbentuk 'experiential' dan berorientasi tindakan. Usahawan Bumiputera hendaklah mengubah sikap supaya sentiasa menambah usaha dan kesanggupan untuk mengemas kini ilmu pengetahuan dalam bidang kewangan dan pemasaran. Walaupun bidang ini sukar dipelajari, keinginan untuk menguasainya hendaklah sentiasa dipupuk. Di samping menambah usaha mempertingkat ilmu pengetahuan bercorak teknikal, usaha untuk membentuk sikap dan personaliti usahawan yang unggul hendaklah diberi pertimbangan terutama bagi melengkapkan diri dengan ciri-ciri keusahawanan yang penting untuk kejayaan.<br /><br />RUJUKAN<br />Barnes, J. G., G. A. Pynn Dan A. C. Noonan. (1982). Marketing research: some basics for small business. Journal of Small Business Management 20 July: 63.<br /><br />Clouse, V. (1990). A Controlled Experiment Relating Entrepreneurial Education To Students Start-Up Decision. Journal Of Small Business Management 22(2): 26-31.<br /><br />Cohen, W. Dan M. Reddick. (1981). Successful Marketing For Small Business. New York: American Management Association 2. <br /><br />Diffley, J. H. (1983). A Study Of Women Business Owners And The Importance Of Selected<br />Entrepreneurial Competencies Related To Educational Programs. Dissertation Abstract International 43: 180.<br /><br />Drucker P.F. (1963). What Is A Business? Marketing And Advertising. P. 9. New York: Mcgraw Hill. Flatley, M. E. 1990. Team Presentation Skills: Essential Tools Today. Business Education Forum 45(2): 19-21.<br /><br />Hess, D. W. (1987). Relevance Of Small Business Courses To Management Needs. Journal Of Small Business Management 25(1): 26-34.<br /><br />Ibrahim, A. B. (1986). Perceived Courses Of Success In Small Business. American Journal Of Small Business 11(2): 41-49.<br /><br />Ken, C. A. (1990). Integrating Entrepreneurship In The Secondary Curriculum: Economics And Other Courses. Dalam Entrepreneurship Education, Disunting Oleh C. A. Kent. Connecticut: Quorum Book.<br /><br />Kresner, W. F. (1990). Post-Secondary Entrepreneurship Education For The Practicing Venture-Initiator. Dalam Entrepreneurship Education: Current Development, Future Direction. New York: Quorum Books.<br /><br />Kohns, D. P. (1985). Entrepreneurship - An Mde Educational Opportunity. Marketing Educators News 3: 10-19.<br /><br />Luff, R. L. Dan J. L. Schoen. (1986). Non Technical Business Employment Competencies In Illinois. The Delta Pi Epsilon Journal Xxxviii(3): 167-157.<br /><br />Mc Cannon, M. Dan T. B. Crews. (2000). The Top Five Communication Skills Needed By Information System Graduates. The Delta Pi Epsilon Journal Xxxxi(4): 246-250.<br /><br />Malaysia. (2001). Rancangan Malaysia Kelapan (Rmke8) 2001-2005. Kuala Lumpur: Percetakan Nasional Berhad.<br /><br />Mc Evi'en, T. (1990). Validation Of Competencies For Entrepreneurship Education And Training In Jamaica. Dissertation Abstract International 51: 3828a.<br /><br />Norasmah Othman. (2002). Keberkesanan Program Keusahawanan Remaja Di Sekolah Menengah. Disertasi Ph.D, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang.<br /><br />Norhashim Nordin. (1994). Towards Strengthening Smis. The Bank Pembangunan Perspective. Kertas Kerja Dibentangkan Di 1st National Conference For Smis, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.<br /><br />Shahril Marzuki. (1993). Pendidikan Di Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur: Utusan Publication.<br /><br />Sieh Lee Mel Ling. 1990. Malaysian Industrial And Entrepreneur Profile. Malaysian Management Review 25(2): 3-10.<br /><br />Tate, C. (1977). The Complete Guide To Your Own Business. Iii. Homewood.<br /><br />Timmons J. A., L. E. Smollen Dan A. L. M. Dingee. (1985). New Venture Creation. Edisi Kedua. Homewood, Illinois: Irwin.<br /><br />Tootelian, D. Dan R. Gaedeke. (1985). Small Business Management. Edisi Kedua. Gienview: Scott, Foresman.<br /><br />Tropman, J. E. (1989). Entrepreneurial Systems For The 1990s. Connecticut: Glenwood Press.<br /><br />Wouble, M. N., J. E. Adams Dan W. L. S. Gohdes. (2000). Business And Marketing Education Program In Georgia: Focus Groups Executive Issues For Program Reform. The Delta Pi Epsilon Journal Xxxxii(I): 38-57.<br /><br />Zaidatol Akmaliah Lope Pihie. (1993). Preparation And Training Needs Of Teachers To Teach Entrepreneurship In Vocational Programs. Pertanika J Soc. Sci. Hum. 1(2): 123-132.<br /><br />Zaidatol Akmaliah Lope Pihie Dan Zakaria Kasa. (2000). Professional Traits Needed For Career Success: How It Relates To Education Of Future Workers. Journal Psikologi 14: 75-86.<br /><br />Zaidatol Akmaliah Lope Pihie, Mohd. Majid Konting, Ab. Rahim Bakar Dan A. Genevieve. (1998). Dasar Dan Strategi Program Peningkatan Keberkesanan Pendidikan Keusahawanan Untuk Abad Ke 21. Kertas Kerja Yang Dibentangkan Di Seminar Pendidikan Keusahawanan: Pendidikan Keusahawanan Abad Ke-21. Selangor: Upm, Serdang.<br /><br />Zaidatol Akmaliah Lope Pihie Dan Habibah. (1997). Keusahawanan Dan Motivasi Diri. Serdang: Penerbit Universiti Putra Malaysia.Al-Mansor Abu saidhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09355698983918954375noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8427095828809940450.post-29240486918668270032010-10-10T22:54:00.001-07:002010-10-10T22:55:12.637-07:00UniversityUniversity is building a gathering of scientific experts and scientists. The greatness of a university lies not only in the magnificent infrastructure, but also depends on scientists and intellectuals called the lecturers at the university. The terms of reference only to deliver lectures not only knowledge, but is also responsible for creating, improving and developing a science. Unlike in school, the teachers are always just struggling with the work schedule in a crowded classroom, but the university professors have a more flexible work schedules and loose (Rafaai Norhasni and Ahmad, 2008). The main terms of reference of the lecturers can be classified as:<br />1. controlling the lecture session (teaching)<br />2. research (research)<br />3. writing the research to be published (publication)<br />4. supervising students (supervision)<br />5. involved in professional services (professional services)<br /><br />Ideally, all aspects of field work should be balanced, however, for higher education institutions that received recognition as a University Research of the University of Malaya (UM), Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM), Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Universiti da Technology Malaysia (UTM) has a greater role. Lecturer in the university are encouraged to focus more on areas of research and publications. All of this capacity available in the Key Performance Indicator (KPI), a lecturer for the annual performance specifications and is also a lecturer for the purpose of promotion to higher positions. Teaching is the primary reference for each member of the academic institute of higher learning either belong to the category of Grade VK lecturer (professor), Grade DS53/54 (Associate Professor), Grade DS51/52 (senior lecturer) or Grade DS45 (Lecturer).<br /><br />Lately we are not only relevant to talk of improving the quality and standards of universities in Malaysia, but we are very keen to make this country as a center of excellence for higher education in the region and the world. Thus, university management should have clear information about the role and direction of growth of higher education institutions.<br /><br />Some institutions of higher learning in the world as we know it today, was built in a long time, so the birth and the personality of its own traditions that are not easily imitated Arau solved by a school other ringgit. Many social factors. tradition, freedom, and intellectual struggles that helped the growth of these institutions into centers of excellence in science.<br /><br />University Research<br />Cabinet on 11 October 2006 has agreed to recognize the Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM), Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia UKM) and Universiti Malaya (UM) as a Research University. On June 10, 2010 Prime Minister, Datuk Seri Najib Tun Razak, when presenting the Tenth Malaysia Plan (RMK-10) in the House of Representatives has announced the recognition of UTM as a research university in the fourth.<br />All research universities should put the innovation as a core value in all activities, including teaching and learning, research and development, writing and publishing, administration, staff and student development as well as consulting and professional services.<br />There are five main objectives the establishment of research universities. Among these are:<br />i. Improving research, development and pengkormersilan (R & D & C);<br />ii. increase the number of postgraduate students and post-doctoral;<br />iii. increase the number of lecturers with PhD;<br />iv. increase the number of foreign students;<br />v. strengthen centers of excellence, and<br />vi. improve the position or ranking institutions of higher learning.<br /><br />(Department of Higher Education, 2010)<br /><br />Hope the government for recognition that was given to the five University of the Philippines, namely UM, UKM, UPM and UTM as the USM Research University to become a stepping stone in efforts to develop strategies to enhance and strengthen the local institutions of higher learning at the international level.<br /><br />Research universities need to have a robust monitoring and evaluation system. This is not an easy business, as well as expertise and experience, this system should be flexible enough and may be applicable to various forms of research. A good system should give emphasis to some of the basics, including the potential of research for public welfare and national development, the readiness of human resources specialists to conduct research quality, support infrastructure, and management of appropriate financial and fixed income research outputs - academic publishing , postgraduate students and research innovation.<br /><br />Assessment and monitoring system should be the basic tool to promote and strengthen the 'research culture' and 'culture of academic excellence. " University leadership must be bold in using the system for rewards and control. For researchers and research groups that show high performance, they should be rewarded in kind, such as promotion, recognition, additional research funding. Instead, the research team showed poor performance, attention should be given to examine the weaknesses and appropriate intervention should be done immediately to improve performance.<br /><br />The most significant obstacle to the success of the idea of the Research University is a system support, especially the interests of the government agencies that regulate the taking of human resources and financial support. Since the four Research Universities are public institutions, management and administration are governed by civil service procedures with the various bureaucracies that hinder control efforts and innovation.<br /><br />Although the situation has improved, without the 'autonomy' through faith, leadership of research universities is not possible to carry out their duties with distinction. However, the most serious obstacles facing the country, in general, and university research in particular is that we lack a leader of the caliber of research and researchers. Since the university created the nation, we have trained many instructors (lecturers) and not the researchers. A small proportion of researchers in the university moment, created on the initiative, interest and distinctive, and often face the mines when they conduct research. Planning strategies to develop human resources research and management support systems is necessary if the vision of university research to succeed.<br /><br />Career Issues Lecturer in Public Universities<br />In an effort to strengthen the capacity and integrity of public universities, the quality of academic staff has been enhanced by encouraging lecturers to further their studies in Ph.D. and post-doctoral level. In addition, training and relevant courses available to all staff on an ongoing basis. In addition, the ratio of lecturers to students is equivalent to international best practice, particularly in critical areas such as medicine, dentistry and pharmacy, as well as the fields of engineering and architecture.<br /><br />As a statutory body, public universities are subject to the Public Service Remuneration System. Malaysian Remuneration System (SSM), which was introduced in 2002 to replace the New Remuneration System (SSB) continues to provide the terms and conditions for the best service in the public service. University Lecturer in view of the Scheme of promotion of lecturers without a permit subject to a vacancy in the office until a special grade of A (Ministry of Higher Education, 2004).<br /><br />In the meantime, lecturers are also allowed to carry out consultancy work and get royalty sharing from the commercialization of research findings up to 80 percent. They also have the opportunity to continue studies at a higher level and has the opportunity to take sabbaticals to conduct research. Although lecturers are subject to the retirement age is 56 years old at the time, but in practice, a lecturer on contract are allowed to resume services until the age of 65 years. However, the scheme of service for lecturers and community colleges are dependent on vacancies and be bound by the scheme of education services at the Ministry of Education. The government also allows the university to appoint lecturers on contract (contract for service) based on expertise with the needs of a competitive remuneration for specialists and scholars of the best (the Ministry of Higher Education, 2004).<br /><br />In 2006, there were over 20,000 people in public lectures. Of these, those with a PhD is 25 percent (Ministry of Higher Education, 2004). However, more than 60 percent of the lecturers at the UPM and USM have a PhD, while UiTM and other universities have recently established a number of lecturers have PhD qualifications about 20 percent. Consistent with the goal to continuously improve the quality of lecturers, the government has decided that by the year 2010.60 per cent of the number of university lecturers need to have a PhD or its equivalent. For this purpose, an allocation of RM1.2 billion has been provided under the RMK-9 to 6.300 lecturers trained at the PhD level in the university Academic Training Scheme (SLAI). However, for the year 2006, the number of scholarships are only utilizing 60 percent of the amount provided (Ministry of Higher Education, 2004).<br /><br />But there are still many issues have been debated in connection with career development of public university professors. Career path of public university professors is often compared to the career paths of civil servants involved in the teaching and learning as teachers, lecturers and university lecturers. For example, in 2009 the government intends to call back many experts WHICH working abroad. Incentives will be given to encourage them to serve in the institutions of higher learning (IPTA) as announced by Higher Education Minister Datuk Seri Mohamed Khaled Nordin. The government may have many advantages in terms of strengthening the benefits of higher education institutions and to reduce wastage of human capital should be owned by the state<br /><br />Table 1.1:<br />Percent Total Holds Ph.D. Professor of Gender and the University for 2009<br />Public bill PROFESSOR PROFESSOR% Total%<br />L P % L % P<br />A 1 219 111 39% 29% 330 35%<br />USM 2 152 27 24% 7% 179 18%<br />SME 3 172 86 38% 25% 258 32%<br />UPM 4 128 45 25% 12% 173 19%<br />UTM 5 145 30 28% 15% 175 24%<br />UUM 6 18 4 12% 4% 22 9%<br />IIUM 7 99 8 24% 5% 107 18%<br />8 UNIMAS 37 3 32% 5% 40 23%<br />EMS 9 17 4 12% 5% 21 9%<br />UPSI 10 27 8 4 23% 31% 18%<br />UiTM 11 85 27 23% 8% 112 16%<br />UDM 12 5 18% 0% 5 13%<br />13 USIM 23 4 34% 15% 27 28%<br />UMT 14 13 2 15% 5% 15 12%<br />15 UTHM 20 3 22% 13% 23 20%<br />UTeM 52 2 16 116% 102% 25% 54<br />17 UMP 16 2 29% 13% 18 25%<br />UniMAP 18 22 2 34% 18% 24 32%<br />GCM 19 7 47% 0% 7 41%<br />UPNM 20 2 2 50% 67% 4 57%<br />Jumlah 1259 366 28% 14% 1625 23%<br />Source: Higher education statistics 2009<br /><br />A major objective of the establishment of research universities is to increase the number of postgraduate students and doctoral levels. Of course, these goals should be accompanied by efforts to increase the number of lecturers who have a Ph.D. However, whether the increase in the number of lecturers who have a high level of excellence that has a doctoral degree will be consistent with the development or movement of the performance of their careers? What is the upgrade of a university to research universities that will lead to an increase in the lecturers career achievement? Table 1.1 shows the overall percentage of professors found that the gender and holds a Ph.D on the university in 2009. Based on the table found the percentage of professors at research universities is still low compared with some non-research universities. UPM and USM has found the number of professors is less than 20% of the respective 19% and 18%. Somewhat surprisingly, when there is not a university-class research universities had the PhD professors who have higher qualifications. Among these are the Technical University of Malaysia (UTeM) was established in 2000 with the percentage of professors than the percentage of lecturers who have doctoral degrees is much (102%). Similarly, other universities (not rated research universities), such as Universiti Malaysia Sarawak (23%), Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia (28%), Universiti Tun Hussein Onn (20%), Universiti Malaysia Pahang (25%) and the University Malaysia Perlis (32%). Here, the question has arisen about whether the advantages of university status to the academic research?<br /><br />Table 1.2:<br />Percent Total Holds Ph.D. Associate Professor of Gender and the University in 2009<br />Billing Associate Professor Associate Professor IPTA Total%<br />L P L P<br />A 1 240 183 43% 29% 423 45%<br />USM 2 248 99 40% 7% 347 35%<br />SME 3 218 188 48% 25% 406 51%<br />UPM 4 200 124 39% 12% 324 36%<br />UTM 5 275 78 52% 15% 353 49%<br />UUM 6 76 40 49% 4% 116 47%<br />7 UIAM 145 46 35% 5% 191 33%<br />8 UNIMAS 55 19 47% 5% 74 43%<br />EMS 9 45 12 31% 5% 57 26%<br />UPSI 10 35 8 6 29% 41% 24%<br />UiTM 558 519 150 11% 8% 1077 153%<br />UDM 12 9 5 32% 0% 14 37%<br />13 USIM 9 7 13% 15% 16 17%<br />UMT 14 28 7 33% 5% 35 27%<br />15 UTHM 32 5 36% 13% 37 33%<br />UTeM February 20, 1944 16% 25% 22 42%<br />17 UMP 17 5 30% 13% 22 31%<br />UniMAP 18 33 2 52% 18% 35 47%<br />GCM 19 8 2 53% 0% 10 59%<br />UPNM 6150 20% 67% 6 86%<br />Jumlah 2257 1349 51% 14% 3606 51%<br />Source: Higher Education Statistics 2009<br /><br />Similarly, Associate Professor, found a career in academic research university can be said to have been left behind when compared to some universities are not world class research university. It can be shown on Table 1.2. Based on these tables shows that the percentage of lecturers who possess a doctorate in research universities who held positions of Associate Professor was 45% (UM), 35% (USM), 51% (SME), 36% (UPM) and 49% (UPM ). While the percentage of lecturers in some other universities is 47% (UUM), 43% (UNIMAS), 153% (UK), 37% (UDM), 42% (UTeM) and 47% (Coppermine). Based on these statistics, shows that there is almost no difference on the advantages of holding the status of research university for academic careers at research universities.<br /><br />This shows that the issue of academic research university career is still to be studied in depth. For example, there is the issue of promotional opportunity, research university lecturer who has served for over 20 years. There are still many lectures on DS45 grade was not appointed to a higher grade because of not having a doctorate. Career problems of the lecturers in these grades continue, while the Registrar of the university have the opportunity to better promotion during their service in public. For example, they have the opportunity to go to Grade N48, N52 and N54 are based on experience. If you see a career path of the lecturers in teacher education institutes (IPG), shows they have a better chance of salary increase to grade 44 should have a master's degree and then to grade 48, 52, and 54 are automatically increase as announced by the ministry. Similarly, the career paths of teachers in public schools. Most of them have the opportunity of a better career path to enjoy a promotion to DG44, DG48, DG52, DG54. In fact, teachers in government schools will have access to the standards of the Public Sector Committee (which at the Jusa) based on seniority and performance even though they do not do research or further their studies to pursue a Masters degree and PhD.<br /><br />There is a public university in Malaysia, particularly the status of Research University of possession of a PhD was required to move to grade 52. Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM) has issued a circular (S) 3.6/145/2/4 vol 5 dated February 26, 2007. According to the circular was a lecturer, will be eligible to gred52 if: (a) lawfully in the office and served for three years, (b) pass the Competency Level Assessment (PTK) 3 and / or PTK4; (c) a good teaching staff, potential or achieve a reasonable level of academic excellence established and (d) the support of the Dean / Head of Department. If you checked the condition (d), found that a lecturer should achieve a reasonable level of academic excellence established. These conditions clearly indicate the need for further studies at the doctorate level as a prerequisite for the promotion of Senior Lecturer Grade DS52.<br /><br />The issue of university lecturers career path coupled with the comparative career paths for teachers in public schools. For example, the issue of salary received by the Senior Lecturer in gred52 said lower when compared with the salaries of teachers in public schools. Index Based Remuneration System (SSM) issued the Public Service Department (PSD), found that there were significant differences in the salaries received by the university professors as compared to school teachers. Although the university lecturers and teachers in public schools actually in the same service classification. Classification of services is "Educational Services Scheme." They are only distinguished by symbols such as the DS, DU, DM, DG, and the DGA to distinguish the types of services are involved in education. For example, university lecturers, such as UKM and UPM will have a grade that has the initials DS. UiTM lecturers while having the initials DM. The teachers also had the initials are DG. However, classification of services is the same, namely "Scheme of Education." What is the distinguishing between Higher Education (for university lecturers) and the School of Education (for teachers). However, there are differences in the salary of public school teachers and university lecturers For example, according to the PSD circular which came into effect on 1 July 2007 has noted that teachers who are at grade DG52 as principals in the schools starting with P1T1 salary of RM4, 900.47. However, senior university lecturers who have the same grades that DS52 has a lower salary scale that is P1T1 RM4, 573.14. This issue has been debated for university lecturers and teachers of public schools in the scheme of service and the same grade of 52, but have different salary scales P1T1.<br /><br />Problems are also found to be different salary scales of university staff and lecturers. For example, Universiti Sains Malaysia has offered a starting salary in the grade of Senior Lecturer P1T1 DS52 at RM4, 573.14. However, the USM has offered a starting salary P1T1 RM4, 894.91 to the staff not as a lecturer at the grade 52 S52 Islamic Affairs Officer, Librarian, S52, C52 Scientific Officer, and others. This shows that there are many difficulties and obstacles faced by the university lecturer in Malaysia compared to civil servants who have the same services as public school teachers. Length of work experience for university lecturers is not an advantage for their career path. This suggests that other factors besides the factors of experience which can affect the performance or career path, especially university lecturers are world-class research university.<br /><br />Statement of problem<br />Studies have shown that individual factors such as self-efficacy (Bnadura, 1997, Cox & Cooper, 1997; Maurtin-Cairncross 2005; Riodan, 2007;), self-esteem (Mullen, 1994, Allen, & Day, 2006), career aspirations (Judge et al., 1995, Lyness & Thompson, 2000, Olsson and Pringle, 2004, Lortie-Lussier & Rinfret, 2005) and attitudes toward work (Lortie-Lussier & Rinfret, 2005, Ragins, Cotton, & Miller, 2000; (Briscoe, Hall, Las Heras, & Unite, 2007) can affect the career performance of an employee. There are also studies that have shown that organizational factors such as mentoring support (Lortie-Lussier & Rinfret, 2005) and training (Wolff & Moser, 2008) provided by the organization to its employees to have a positive impact on the performance of his career.<br /><br />Before that, there have been studies that identified three major factors that can affect the performance of his career. But the three factors studied were only describe the performance of an individual's subjective career. These factors can be classified as individual factors, structural and behavioral. (He, 1999; Ballout, 2007). But based on previous studies didapti many more factors that may affect the performance of individuals, especially lecturers seseoarang career. Moreover. It was found that there is still lack of studies related to the performance of his career, especially the lecturers are university professors. This raised the question of how these factors can be applied in the context of the individuals designated as lecturers in public universities in Malaysia.<br /><br />Most previous researchers put the subjective career performance against the performance objectives of the career (Baruch & Peiperl, 2000, Eddleston et al., 2004, Hay & Hodgkinson, 2006). This is contrary to the theory of career that can only measure the performance of his career with a monthly income and the amount of promotion for promotion (Arthur, Khapova & Wilderom, 2005). This study will attempt to prove the argument which is more accurate to measure the performance of his career a professor who not only can be measured with acceptable pay and promotion but also concerned about the number of publications, research, teaching and consultation (Ministry of Higher Education, 2004).<br /><br />Therefore, the management and the lecturers should be able to identify competency-kompetenti needed to improve the performance of their careers. This is because most previous studies found that individuals who wish to improve the performance of his career, should also enhance their competence, such as career management competence, competence building a network for career development and skills in using computers (Thomson, 2005). According to them the three competencies have a positive impact on the performance of an individual's career. But in a recent study conducted by Roziah (2010) among the Diplomatic Officers of the Philippines found that there was a negative relationship between the relatively strong computer skills and performance of the officer's career. He justifies that the officer did not need computer skills to increase the performance of his career. Therefore, this study will prove whether the study conducted by his research is consistent with the performance of his career lecturer at research universities in Malaysia.<br /><br />According to previous studies of personality factors (Boudreau, Boswell, & Judge, 2001) plays an important role in improving job performance, job commitment either individual or group (Mayer & Caruso, 2000; 1995.1999 Goleman, Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso 2000 and Noriah, Rahayah Siti & Syed Najmuddin 2003). Personality elements such as proactive personality and cognitive abilities (Seibert, Kraimer, & Crant, 2001), and emotional kecerdsan (Poon, 2004) can be regarded as the core of career achievement in building a quality individual or group. For the academic profession, emotional intelligence is a personality trait that should be owned by each of the lecturers and teachers to be successful in his career. Identification of emotional intelligence provides valuable information in assessing the effectiveness of the lecturers themselves, and ultimately become a catalyst towards improving the quality of human resources. There is a possibility that the lecturers are likely to have higher emotional intelligence and work commitment and organizational commitment is high, because these people know who he was, always maintain good relationships with others and try to become the best workers. Understanding what makes the most effective leaders in an organization are very important in complex work environments today. The university management must identify and develop the careers of the lecturers who have leadership potential to survive. With a limited number of studies it is necessary to conduct a study to assess the influence of personality on career achievement.<br /><br />According to statistics released for the Department of Higher Education, 2009, found that there were 2.616 women lecturers who have doctoral degrees in all public universities in Malaysia. However, there are only 366 (14%) of academic staff only woman who has a doctorate from the position of Professor in 1259 (28%) male academic staff. While the position of Associate Professor was there in 1349 (14%) only female academic staff who holds a doctorate from the position of Associate Professor in 2257 (51%) male academic staff. This shows that the highest positions held by women is still small when compared with men despite having a doctorate qualification. This is consistent with the arguments set out by Ng et al., (2005), which asserts that there are differences in the performance of his career based on gender. So this review will take the initiative to identify whether the difference is due to individual factors, organizational, personality or competence of a commitment to academics.<br /><br />Previous studies also showed that there was a positive relationship between commitment to career and career achievement (Simo, Enache, Leyes, & Alarcón, 2010). Almost most of the factors that influence the performance of his career are also factors that influence the commitment to a career. Therefore, this study answered the question of whether the commitment to career is variable and the mediator between the independent variable dependent variable is the performance of his career.<br /><br />Therefore, this study will attempt to answer several questions: Why is there a performance difference between the careers of academic men and women workers? What are the factors that influence the career achievement and commitment to the performance of university academic staff career. What is the most important factor in influencing the career commitment and performance. The survey will run usahausaha to answer all questions raised, to cover as much as possible the knowledge gap that exists in the performance of his career in public higher education sector in Pakistan.<br /><br />Research Objectives<br />General Objectives<br />In general, the study examines the factors that influence the performance of a career commitment to a career as a mediator variable for academic staff at public universities in Malaysia.<br /><br />Specific Objectives<br />i) Identify the relationship between individual characteristics (self-efficacy, self-esteem and aspirations of a career) and the performance of his career.<br />ii) Mengenalpasti relationship between organizational factors (kendiri efficacy, self-esteem and aspirations of kerjaya) and kerjaya achievement.<br />iii) To identify the relationship between personality factors (personality proactive cognitive, and emotional intelligence) and performance career.<br />iv) Identify the relationship between competence factors (career management, social networking, and computer skills) and career achievement.<br />v) Identify the relationship between individual characteristics (self-efficacy, self-esteem and aspirations of a career) and a commitment to a career.<br />vi) Mengenalpasti relationship between organizational factors (kendiri efficacy, self-esteem and aspirations of kerjaya) and commitment to kerjaya.<br />vii) To identify the relationship between personality factors (personality proactive cognitive, and emotional intelligence) and commitment to the profession.<br />viii) To identify the relationship between competence factors (career management, social networking, and computer skills) and commitment to the profession.<br />ix) Identify the relationship between commitment to career and career achievement.<br />x) To identify gender differences in career achievement.Al-Mansor Abu saidhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09355698983918954375noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8427095828809940450.post-38430549346507998542010-10-10T22:52:00.001-07:002010-10-10T22:53:05.564-07:00Kerjaya di Universiti awamPendahuluan<br />Universiti merupakan gedung ilmiah yang menghimpun pakar-pakar dan para ilmuwan. Kehebatan sesebuah universiti tidak hanya terletak pada prasarananya yang megah, tetapi juga bergantung kepada para ilmuwan dan cendekiawan yang bergelar pensyarah di universiti tersebut. Bidang tugas pensyarah bukan sahaja hanya menyampaikan ilmu, tetapi juga bertanggungjawab untuk mencipta, memperbaiki kelemahan dan mengembangkan sesuatu ilmu. Tidak seperti di sekolah, para guru sentiasa hanya bergelut dengan jadual kerja di bilik darjah yang padat, namun para pensyarah universiti mempunyai jadual kerja yang lebih fleksibel dan longgar (Norhasni dan Ahmad Rafaai, 2008). Bidang tugas utama pensyarah dapat dikategorikan kepada:<br />1. mengendalikan sesi kuliah (pengajaran)<br />2. menjalankan penyelidikan (penyelidikan)<br />3. menulis hasil penyelidikan untuk diterbitkan (penerbitan)<br />4. menyelia pelajar (penyeliaan)<br />5. terlibat dalam khidmat profesional (khidmat profesional)<br /><br />Sebaik-baiknya, semua aspek bidang kerja tersebut perlu seimbang, namun demikian bagi institusi pengajian tinggi yang mendapat pengiktirafan sebagai Universiti Penyelidikan iaitu Universiti Malaya (UM), Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM), Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia da Universiti teknologi Malaysia (UTM) mempunyai peranan yang lebih besar. Pensyarah yang berada di universiti berkenaan digalakkan memberikan fokus yang lebih kepada bidang kerja penyelidikan dan penerbitan. Kesemua bidang tugas ini terdapat di dalam Indeks Prestasi Utama (KPI) pensyarah bagi penentuan prestasi tahunan seseorang pensyarah dan juga bagi tujuan kenaikan pangkat ke jawatan yang lebih tinggi. Pengajaran merupakan bidang tugas yang utama bagi setiap ahli akademik di sesebuah IPT sama ada tergolong dalam kategori pensyarah Gred VK (profesor), Gred DS53/54 (Profesor Madya), Gred DS51/52 (Pensyarah kanan) atau Gred DS45 (Pensyarah).<br /><br />Sejak akhir-akhir ini kita bukan sahaja bercakap berkaitan usaha meningkatkan mutu dan taraf universiti-universiti di Malaysia, malah kita menyatakan hasrat bagi menjadikan negara ini cemerlang sebagai pusat pengajian tinggi di rantau ini dan di dunia. Oleh itu, pihak pengurusan universiti perlu mempunyai maklumat yang jelas tentang peranan dan arah pertumbuhan sesebuah institusi pengajian tinggi.<br /><br />Beberapa pusat pengajian tinggi di dunia yang kita kenali kini, ternyata dibina dalam jangka waktu yang lama, sehingga melahirkan tradisi dan keperibadiannya yang tersendiri yang tidak mudah ditiru arau diatasi oleh sebuah pusat pengajian ringgi yang lain. Banyak faktor kemasyarakatan. tradisi, kebebasan, perjuangan dan keintelektualan yang membantu pertumbuhan institusi-institusi tersebut menjadi pusat-pusat kecemerlangan ilmu.<br /><br />Universiti Penyelidikan<br />Jemaah Menteri pada 11 Oktober 2006 telah bersetuju mengiktiraf Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM), Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia UKM) dan Universiti Malaya (UM) sebagai Universiti Penyelidikan. Pada 10 Jun 2010 Perdana Menteri, Datuk Seri Najib Tun Razak ketika membentangkan Rancangan Malaysia Kesepuluh (RMK-10) di Dewan Rakyat telah mengumumkan pengiktirafan UTM sebagai universiti penyelidikan yang keempat.<br />Kesemua universiti penyelidikan seharusnya meletakkan inovasi sebagai nilai teras dalam semua aktiviti termasuk pengajaran dan pembelajaran; penyelidikan dan pembangunan; penulisan dan penerbitan; pengurusan pentadbiran; pembangunan staf dan mahasiswa serta perundingan dan perkhidmatan profesional.<br />Terdapat lima matlamat utama penubuhan universiti penyelidikan. Di antaranya ialah: <br />i. Meningkatkan aktiviti penyelidikan, pembangunan dan pengkormersilan (R&D&C);<br />ii. meningkatkan bilangan pelajar pasca siswazah dan pasca doktoral;<br />iii. meningkatkan bilangan pensyarah yang mempunyai PhD;<br />iv. meningkatkan bilangan pelajar asing;<br />v. mengukuhkan pusat-pusat kecemerlangan; dan<br />vi. meningkatkan kedudukan atau ranking IPT.<br /><br />(Jabatan Pengajian Tinggi, 2010)<br /><br />Harapan kerajaan Malaysia agar pengiktirafan yang telah diberikan kepada kelima-lima Universiti di Malaysia iaitu UM, UKM, USM UPM dan UTM sebagai Universiti Penyelidikan dapat menjadi batu loncatan dalam usaha untuk merangka strategi bagi mempertingkatkan dan memperkukuhkan lagi kedudukan IPTA tempatan di peringkat antarabangsa. <br /><br />Universiti Penyelidikan perlu mempunyai sistem penilaian dan pemantauan mantap. Ini bukannya suatu urusan mudah, di samping kepakaran dan pengalaman, sistem ini harus cukup fleksibel dan boleh diterima pakai untuk pelbagai bentuk penyelidikan. Sistem yang baik perlu memberi penekanan kepada beberapa perkara asas, antaranya potensi penyelidikan untuk kesejahteraan masyarakat dan pembangunan negara; kesediaan sumber manusia pakar yang dapat menjalankan penyelidikan yang berkualiti; sokongan infrastruktur, kewangan dan pengurusan yang bersesuaian; dan penghasilan output penyelidikan yang ditetapkan - penerbitan ilmiah, pelajar pascasiswazah serta inovasi penyelidikan.<br /><br />Sistem penilaian dan pemantauan perlu dijadikan alat asas untuk memupuk dan memperkukuhkan 'budaya penyelidikan' dan 'budaya akademik cemerlang'. Kepemimpinan universiti mesti berani menggunakan sistem ini untuk tujuan ganjaran dan kawalan. Bagi penyelidik dan kumpulan penyelidikan yang menunjukkan prestasi tinggi, mereka perlu diberikan ganjaran setimpal, umpamanya kenaikan pangkat, pengiktirafan, penyediaan dana penyelidikan tambahan. Sebaliknya, bagi kumpulan penyelidikan yang menunjukkan prestasi lemah, perhatian perlu diberikan kepada meneliti punca kelemahan dan intervensi bersesuaian perlu dilakukan segera untuk meningkatkan prestasi.<br /><br />Satu hambatan paling ketara untuk menjayakan gagasan Universiti Penyelidikan ialah sistem sokongan pelbagai pihak, terutama agensi berkepentingan di peringkat kerajaan yang mengawal pengambilan sumber manusia dan sokongan kewangan. Oleh kerana keempat-empat Universiti Penyelidikan ini adalah institusi awam, pengurusan dan pentadbirannya masih dikawal oleh prosedur perkhidmatan awam dengan pelbagai birokrasi kawalan yang membantutkan usaha kreativiti dan inovasi.<br /><br />Walaupun keadaan sudah bertambah baik, tanpa 'autonomi' melalui kepercayaan, kepemimpinan universiti penyelidikan tidak mungkin dapat menjalankan tugas mereka dengan cemerlang. Bagaimanapun, hambatan paling serius dihadapi negara umumnya, dan Universiti Penyelidikan khususnya ialah kita ketandusan pemimpin penyelidikan dan penyelidik yang berkaliber. Sejak negara mewujudkan universiti, kita sudah melatih ramai tenaga pengajar (pensyarah) dan bukannya penyelidik. Sebahagian kecil penyelidik yang ada di universiti ketika ini, terhasil atas inisiatif, minat dan kecenderungan tersendiri, dan sering mengharungi ranjau ketika melaksanakan penyelidikan mereka. Perancangan strategi bagi membina sumber manusia penyelidik dan sistem sokongan pengurusan sangat diperlukan jika wawasan Universiti Penyelidikan ingin dijayakan.<br /><br />Isu Kerjaya Pensyarah di Universiti Awam<br />Dalam usaha memperkukuh keupayaan dan kewibawaan universiti awam, kualiti tenaga akademik telah dipertingkatkan dengan menggalakkan pensyarah melanjutkan pengajian di peringkat Ph.D dan pasca kedoktoran. Di samping itu, latihan-latihan dan kursus-kursus yang berkaitan disediakan kepada semua staf secara berterusan. Selain itu, nisbah bilangan pensyarah terhadap pelajar adalah setara dengan amalan terbaik antarabangsa, khususnya dalam bidang-bidang kritikal seperti perubatan, pergigian dan farmasi, serta bidang-bidang kejuruteraan dan seni bina.<br /><br />Sebagai sebuah badan berkanun, IPTA tertakluk pada Sistem Saraan Perkhidmatan Awam. Sistem Saraan Malaysia (SSM) yang diperkenalkan pada tahun 2002 bagi menggantikan Sistem Saraan Baru (SSB) terus menyediakan syarat dan terma perkhidmatan yang terbaik dalam perkhidmatan awam. Ini memandangkan Skim Pensyarah Universiti membenarkan kenaikan pangkat pensyarah tanpa tertakluk kepada kekosongan jawatan hingga ke gred khas A (Kementerian Pengajian Tinggi Malaysia, 2004).<br /><br />Dalam pada itu, pensyarah juga dibenarkan menjalankan kerja-kerja perundingan dan mendapat perkongsian royalty daripada pengkomersialan hasil penyelidikan sehingga 80 peratus. Mereka juga diberi peluang untuk meneruskan pengajian di peringkat yang lebih tinggi di samping mempunyai peluang untuk mengambil cuti sabatikal bagi menjalankan penyelidikan. Sungguhpun pensyarah tertakluk kepada umur persaraan 56 tahun pada masa ini, tetapi pada amalannya, pensyarah dibenarkan menyambung perkhidmatan secara kontrak sehingga berumur 65 tahun. Walau bagaimanapun, skim perkhidmatan pensyarah politeknik dan kolej komuniti masih bergantung pada kekosongan jawatan dan terikat dengan skim perkhidmatan perguruan di Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia. Kerajaan juga membenarkan IPTA melantik pensyarah secara kontrak (contract for service) berdasarkan keperluan kepakaran dengan imbuhan yang kompetitif bagi mendapatkan pakar dan sarjana yang terbaik (Kementerian Pengajian Tinggi Malaysia, 2004).<br /><br />Pada tahun 2006, terdapat lebih 20,000 orang pensyarah di IPTA. Daripada jumlah ini, mereka yang mempunyai PhD adalah 25 peratus (Kementerian Pengajian Tinggi Malaysia, 2004). Walau bagaimanapun, lebih 60 peratus daripada jumlah pensyarah di UPM dan USM memiliki PhD, manakala UiTM dan beberapa universiti baru ditubuhkan mempunyai bilangan pensyarah yang mempunyai kelayakan PhD kurang 20 peratus. Selaras dengan matlamat untuk terus meningkatkan kualiti pensyarah, kerajaan telah menetapkan supaya menjelang tahun 2010,60 peratus daripada bilangan pensyarah IPTA perlu memiliki PhD dan setaraf dengannya. Bagi maksud ini, peruntukan sebanyak RM1.2 bilion telah disediakan di bawah RMKe-9 untuk melatih seramai 6,300 orang pensyarah di peringkat PhD di bawah Skim Latihan Akademik IPTA (SLAI). Namun demikian, bagi tahun 2006, bilangan yang memanfaatkan biasiswa hanyalah 60 peratus daripada jumlah yang diperuntukkan (Kementerian Pengajian Tinggi Malaysia, 2004).<br /><br />Namun masih banyak isu telah diperdebatkan berkaitan dengan pengembangan kerjaya pensyarah universiti awam. Laluan kerjaya pensyarah universiti awam sering dibandingkan dengan laluan kerjaya kakitangan awam yang terlibat dengan pengajaran dan pembelajaran seperti guru, pensyarah politeknik dan pensyarah institusi perguruan. Misalnya, pada tahun 2009 kerajaan berhasrat memanggil semula kebanyakan tenaga pakar yanga bekerja di luar negara. Insentif akan diberikan bagi menggalakkan mereka berkhidmat di institusi-institusi pengajian tinggi awam (IPTA) seperti diumumkan Menteri Pengajian Tinggi, Datuk Seri Mohamed Khaled Nordin. Langkah kerajaan ini mungkin mempunyai banyak kebaikan dari segi memantapkan keunggulan institusi-institusi pengajian tinggi Negara dan dapat mengurangkan pembaziran modal insan yang sepatutnya dimiliki oleh negara<br /><br />Jadual 1.1:<br />Peratus Keseluruhan Profesor yang Berkelulusan Ph.D berdasarkan Jantina dan Universiti bagi tahun 2009<br />Bil IPTA PROFESOR % PROFESOR Jumlah %<br /> L P % L % P <br />1 UM 219 111 39% 29% 330 35%<br />2 USM 152 27 24% 7% 179 18%<br />3 UKM 172 86 38% 25% 258 32%<br />4 UPM 128 45 25% 12% 173 19%<br />5 UTM 145 30 28% 15% 175 24%<br />6 UUM 18 4 12% 4% 22 9%<br />7 UIAM 99 8 24% 5% 107 18%<br />8 UNIMAS 37 3 32% 5% 40 23%<br />9 UMS 17 4 12% 5% 21 9%<br />10 UPSI 27 4 23% 8% 31 18%<br />11 UiTM 85 27 23% 8% 112 16%<br />12 UDM 5 18% 0% 5 13%<br />13 USIM 23 4 34% 15% 27 28%<br />14 UMT 13 2 15% 5% 15 12%<br />15 UTHM 20 3 22% 13% 23 20%<br />16 UTeM 52 2 116% 25% 54 102%<br />17 UMP 16 2 29% 13% 18 25%<br />18 UniMAP 22 2 34% 18% 24 32%<br />19 UMK 7 47% 0% 7 41%<br />20 UPNM 2 2 50% 67% 4 57%<br /> Jumlah 1259 366 28% 14% 1625 23%<br />Sumber: Perangkaan pengajian Tinggi Malaysia 2009<br /><br />Di antara matlamat utama penubuhan universiti penyelidikan adalah meningkatkan bilangan pelajar pasca siswazah dan kedoktoran. Sudah tentu matlamat tersebut perlu disusuli dengan usaha untuk meningkatkan bilangan pensyarah yang mempunyai Ph.D. Namun, adakah peningkatan bilangan pensyarah yang mempunyai tahap kecemerlangan yang tinggi iaitu memiliki ijazah kedoktoran itu akan selari dengan pembangunan atau pergerakan prestasi kerjaya mereka? Apakah kenaikan taraf sesebuah universiti kepada universiti penyelidikan itu akan membawa kepada kenaikan prestasi kerjaya para pensyarah? Jadual 1.1, menunjukkan didapati bahawa peratus keseluruhan profesor yang berkelulusan Ph.D berdasarkan jantina dan universiti bagi tahun 2009. Berdasarkan jadual tersebut didapati peratusan profesor di universiti penyelidikan masih rendah jika dibandingkan dengan beberapa universiti bukan penyelidikan. Didapati UPM dan USM mempunyai bilangan profesor kurang dari 20% iaitu masing-masing 19% dan 18%. Agak memeranjatkan apabila, terdapat universiti-universiti yang bukan bertaraf universiti penyelidikan mempunyai peratusan profesor yang mempunyai kelayakan Ph.D yang lebih tinggi. Di antaranya adalah universiti Teknikal Malaysia (UTeM) yang ditubuhkan pada tahun 2000 mempunyai peratusan profesor yang melebihi peratusan pensyarah yang mempunyai ijazah kedoktoran iaitu sebanyak (102%). Begitu juga dengan universiti-universiti lain (yang bukan bertaraf universiti penyelidikan) seperti Universiti Malaysia Sarawak (23%), Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia (28%), Universiti Tun Hussein Onn (20%), Universiti Malaysia Pahang (25%) dan Universiti Malaysia Perlis (32%). Di sini, telah timbul persoalan tentang apakah kelebihan mendapatkan status universiti penyelidikan kepada para staf akademik?<br /><br />Jadual 1.2:<br />Peratus Keseluruhan Profesor Madya yang Berkelulusan Ph.D berdasarkan Jantina dan Universiti tahun 2009<br />Bil IPTA PROFESOR MADYA PROFESOR MADYA Jumlah %<br /> L P L P <br />1 UM 240 183 43% 29% 423 45%<br />2 USM 248 99 40% 7% 347 35%<br />3 UKM 218 188 48% 25% 406 51%<br />4 UPM 200 124 39% 12% 324 36%<br />5 UTM 275 78 52% 15% 353 49%<br />6 UUM 76 40 49% 4% 116 47%<br />7 UIAM 145 46 35% 5% 191 33%<br />8 UNIMAS 55 19 47% 5% 74 43%<br />9 UMS 45 12 31% 5% 57 26%<br />10 UPSI 35 6 29% 8% 41 24%<br />11 UiTM 558 519 150% 8% 1077 153%<br />12 UDM 9 5 32% 0% 14 37%<br />13 USIM 9 7 13% 15% 16 17%<br />14 UMT 28 7 33% 5% 35 27%<br />15 UTHM 32 5 36% 13% 37 33%<br />16 UTeM 20 2 44% 25% 22 42%<br />17 UMP 17 5 30% 13% 22 31%<br />18 UniMAP 33 2 52% 18% 35 47%<br />19 UMK 8 2 53% 0% 10 59%<br />20 UPNM 6 150% 67% 6 86%<br /> Jumlah 2257 1349 51% 14% 3606 51%<br />Sumber: Perangkaan Pengajian Tinggi Malaysia 2009<br /><br />Begitu juga bagi jawatan Profesor Madya, didapati kerjaya staf akademik di universiti penyelidikan boleh dikatakan telah ketinggalan jika dibandingkan dengan beberapa universiti yang bukan bertaraf universiti penyelidikan. Ini boleh ditunjukkan berdasarkan jadual 1.2. Berdasarkan jadual tersebut didapati bahawa peratusan para pensyarah yang mempunyai kelayakan ijazah kedoktoran di universiti penyelidikan yang menjawat jawatan Profesor Madya adalah 45% (UM), 35% (USM), 51% (UKM), 36% (UPM) dan 49% (UPM). Manakala peratusan para pensyarah di beberapa universiti-universiti lain adalah 47% (UUM), 43% (UNIMAS), 153% (UiTM), 37% (UDM), 42% (UTeM) dan 47% (UniMAP). Berdasarkan statistik tersebut, menunjukkan bahawa hampir tidak wujud perbezaan tentang kelebihan memegang status universiti penyelidikan bagi kerjaya staf akademik di universiti penyelidikan.<br /><br />Ini menunjukkan bahawa isu kerjaya staf akademik universiti penyelidikan masih perlu dikaji secara mendalam. Misalnya, masih terdapat isu peluang kenaikan pangkat pensyarah universiti penyelidikan yang telah berkhidmat lebih 20 tahun. Masih ramai pensyarah pada gred DS45 tidak dilantik ke gred jawatan lebih tinggi kerana tidak mempunyai ijazah kedoktoran. Masalah kerjaya para pensyarah pada gred ini berterusan, sedangkan jawatan Pendaftar di IPTA mempunyai peluang kenaikan pangkat yang lebih baik sepanjang perkhidmatan mereka di IPTA. Misalnya, mereka berpeluang untuk ke gred N48, N52 dan N54 berdasarkan pengalaman. Jika dilihat laluan kerjaya para pensyarah di institut pendidikan guru (IPG) pula, didapati mereka mempunyai peluang kenaikan gaji lebih baik iaitu ke gred 44 sekiranya memiliki ijazah sarjana dan seterusnya ke gred 48, 52, dan 54 secara kenaikan automatik seperti diumumkan kementerian . Begitu juga dengan laluan kerjaya guru-guru di sekolah-sekolah awam. Kebanyakan mereka berpeluang laluan kerjaya yang lebih baik dengan berpeluang menikmati kenaikan pangkat ke DG44, DG48, DG52, DG54. Malah, para guru di sekolah kerajaan juga berpeluang untuk ke taraf Jawatan Utama Sektor Awam (iaitu pada peringkat Jusa) berdasarkan kekananan dan pencapaian mereka walaupun tidak melakukan penyelidikan atau menyambung pelajaran ke peringkat ijazah Sarjana dan Doktor Falsafah.<br /><br />Terdapat universiti awam di Malaysia terutamanya yang bertaraf Universiti Penyelidikan yang telah mensyaratkan pemilikan Ijazah Kedoktoran langkah untuk ke gred 52. Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM) telah mengeluarkan satu pekeliling (S)3.6/145/2/4 Jld 5 bertarikh 26 Februari 2007. Mengikut pekeliling tersebut seseorang pensyarah itu akan layak ke gred52 apabila; (a) sah dalam jawatan dan berkhidmat selama tiga tahun; (b) lulus Penilaian Tahap Kecekapan (PTK) 3 dan atau PTK4; (c) seorang tenaga pengajar yang baik, berpotensi atau mencapai tahap kecemerlangan akademik munasabah yang ditetapkan dan (d) mendapat sokongan Dekan/Ketua Jabatan. Jika diteliti dengan syarat (d), didapati bahawa seseorang pensyarah itu perlu mencapai tahap kecemerlangan akademik yang munasabah yang ditetapkan. Syarat ini jelas menunjukkan keperluan untuk melanjutkan pelajaran ke tahap ijazah kedoktoran sebagai syarat untuk kenaikan pangkat Pensyarah Kanan gred DS52.<br /><br />Isu laluan kerjaya para pensyarah IPTA ditambah dengan perbandingan laluan kerjaya para guru di sekolah awam. Misalnya isu tentang gaji yang diterima oleh Pensyarah Kanan pada gred52 dikatakan lebih rendah jika dibandingkan dengan gaji guru-guru di sekolah awam. Berdasarkan Indeks Sistem Saraan Malaysia (SSM) yang dikeluarkan Jabatan Perkhidmatan Awam (JPA), didapati bahawa terdapat perbezaan yang ketara tentang gaji yang diterima oleh pensyarah universiti jika dibandingkan dengan guru sekolah. Walaupun para pensyarah IPTA dan para guru di sekolah awam sebenarnya berada dalam klasifikasi perkhidmatan yang sama. Klasifikasi perkhidmatan tersebut adalah “Skim Perkhidmatan Pendidikan”. Mereka hanya dibezakan dengan simbol seperti DS, DU, DM, DG dan DGA bagi membezakan jenis perkhidmatan pendidikan yang diceburi. Misalnya, pensyarah IPTA seperti UKM dan UPM akan mempunyai gred yang mempunyai huruf awalan DS. Manakala pensyarah UiTM mempunyai huruf awalan DM. Para guru pula berada mempunyai huruf awalan DG. Namun klasifikasi bidang perkhidmatan adalah sama iaitu “Skim Perkhidmatan Pendidikan”. Apa yang membezakan adalah antara Bidang Pendidikan Tinggi (bagi pensyarah IPTA) dan Bidang Pendidikan Sekolah (bagi guru). Namun masih terdapat perbezaan tentang tangga gaji para guru sekolah awam dan pensyarah IPTA Misalnya, mengikut Pekeliling JPA yang berkuat kuasa 1 Julai 2007 telah mencatatkan bahawa para guru yang berada pada Gred DG52 seperti pengetua di sekolah bermula dengan tangga gaji P1T1 RM4,900.47. Walau bagaimanapun para pensyarah kanan IPTA yang mempunyai gred sama iaitu DS52 mempunyai tangga gaji yang lebih rendah iaitu P1T1 RM4,573.14. Isu ini telah menjadi perdebatan kerana para pensyarah IPTA dan guru sekolah awam berada dalam skim perkhidmatan dan gred yang sama iaitu 52, namun mempunyai tangga gaji P1T1 yang berbeza.<br /><br />Masalah tangga gaji juga didapati berbeza di antara kakitangan dan pensyarah IPTA. Misalnya Universiti Sains Malaysia telah menawarkan tangga gaji permulaan Pensyarah Kanan pada gred DS52 pada P1T1 RM4,573.14. Namun, pihak USM telah menawarkan tangga gaji permulaan P1T1 RM4,894.91 kepada kakitangan bukan pensyarah pada gred 52 seperti Pegawai Ehwal Islam S52, Pustakawan S52, Pegawai Sains C52, dan lain-lain. Ini menunjukkan terdapat banyak kesukaran dan halangan yang dihadapi oleh para pensyarah IPTA di Malaysia jika dibandingkan dengan kakitangan awam yang mempunyai bidang perkhidmatan yang sama seperti guru sekolah awam. Pengalaman kerja yang panjang bagi para pensyarah IPTA bukanlah satu kelebihan bagi laluan kerjaya. Ini menunjukkan bahawa faktor-faktor lain selain faktor pengalaman bekerja yang dapat mempengaruhi prestasi atau laluan kerjaya para pensyarah IPTA terutamanya yang bertaraf Universiti Penyelidikan.<br /><br />Pernyataan masalah<br />Kajian-kajian telah membuktikan bahawa faktor-faktor individu seperti efikasi diri (Bnadura, 1997; Cox & Cooper, 1997; Maurtin-Cairncross 2005; Riodan, 2007;), penghargaan diri (Mullen, 1994; Allen, & Day, 2006), aspirasi kerjaya (Judge et al., 1995; Lyness & Thompson, 2000; Olsson and Pringle, 2004; Lortie-Lussier & Rinfret, 2005) dan sikap terhadap kerja (Lortie-Lussier & Rinfret, 2005; Ragins, Cotton, & Miller, 2000; (Briscoe, Hall, Las Heras, & Unite, 2007) dapat mempengaruhi prestasi kerjaya seseorang pekerja. Terdapat juga kajian yang telah membuktikan bahawa faktor organisasi seperti sokongan mentor (Lortie-Lussier & Rinfret, 2005) serta latihan (Wolff & Moser, 2008) yang disediakan oleh pihak organisasi kepada para pekerja dapat memberikan kesan yang positif terhadap prestasi kerjaya.<br /><br />Sebelum itu, telah terdapat kajian yang mengenal pasti tiga faktor utama yang dapat mempengaruhi prestasi kerjaya. Namun ketiga-tiga faktor yang dikaji tersebut adalah hanya menerangkan prestasi subjektif kerjaya seseorang individu. Faktor-faktor tersebut dapat dikategorikan kepada faktor individu, struktur dan gelagat. (Nabi, 1999; Ballout, 2007). Namun berdasarkan kajian-kajian lepas didapti masih banyak lagi factor-faktor yang mungkin dapat mempengaruhi prestasi kerjaya seseoarang individu terutamanya pensyarah. Lebih-lebih lagi. Didapati bahawa masih terdapat kekurangan kajian yang berkaitan dengan prestasi kerjaya pensyarah yang terutamanya para pensyarah universiti. Ini telah meningkatkan persoalan tentang bagaimana faktor-faktor tersebut dapat diaplikasikan dalam konteks individu-individu yang bergelar pensyarah di universiti-universiti awam di Malaysia.<br /><br />Kebanyakan penyelidik-penyelidik lepas mengutamakan prestasi kerjaya subjektif berbanding prestasi kerjaya objektif (Baruch & Peiperl, 2000; Eddleston et al., 2004; Hay & Hodgkinson, 2006). Ini adalah bertentangan dengan teori kerjaya yang mengatakan bahawa prestasi kerjaya hanya dapat diukur dengan pendapatan bulanan dan jumlah promosi bagi kenaikan pangkat (Arthur, Khapova & Wilderom, 2005). Kajian ini akan cuba membuktikan hujah mana yang lebih tepat bagi mengukur prestasi kerjaya seorang pensyarah yang bukan sahaja boleh diukur dengan gaji dan promosi yang diterima tetapi juga mementingkan kepada jumlah penerbitan, penyelidikan, pengajaran dan perundingan (Kementerian Pengajian Tinggi Malaysia, 2004).<br /><br />Oleh itu pihak pengurusan dan para pensyarah seharusnya dapat mengenal pasti kompetensi-kompetenti yang diperlukan bagi meningkatkan prestasi kerjaya mereka. Ini kerana kebanyakan kajian-kajian lepas mendapati bahawa individu-individu yang ingin meningkatkan prestasi kerjaya, perlu juga meningkatkan kompetensi mereka seperti kompetensi pengurusan kerjaya, kompetensi mendapatkan rangkaian bagi pengembangan kerjaya dan kemahiran dalam menggunakan komputer (Thomson, 2005). Menurut mereka ketiga-tiga kompetensi mempunyai kesan positif terhadap prestasi kerjaya seseorang individu. Namun dalam kajian terbaru yang di lakukan oleh Roziah (2010) dalam kalangan Pegawai-Pegawai Diplomatik di Malaysia mendapati bahawa terdapat hubungan yang negatif yang agak kuat antara kemahiran komputer dan prestasi kerjaya pegawai. Beliau menjustifikasikan bahawa para pegawai yang tidak memerlukan kemahiran menggunakan komputer meningkatkan prestasi kerjaya. Oleh itu kajian ini akan membuktikan sama ada kajian yang dilakukan oleh beliau tersebut konsisten dengan kajian prestasi kerjaya pensyarah di universiti-universiti penyelidikan di Malaysia.<br /><br />Menurut kajian-kajian lepas faktor personaliti (Boudreau, Boswell, & Judge, 2001) memainkan peranan penting dalam meningkatkan prestasi kerja, komitmen pekerjaan sama ada individu mahupun kumpulan (Mayer & Caruso 2000; Goleman 1995,1999; Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso 2000 dan Noriah, Siti Rahayah, & Syed Najmuddin 2003). Elemen personaliti seperti personaliti proaktif dan kebolehan kognitif (Seibert, Kraimer, & Crant, 2001), dan kecerdsan emosi (Poon, 2004) boleh dianggap sebagai teras dalam membina prestasi kerjaya individu mahupun kumpulan yang berkualiti. Bagi profesion akademik, kecerdasan emosi merupakan trait personaliti yang perlu dimiliki oleh setiap pensyarah dan guru untuk berjaya dalam kerjayanya. Pengenalpastian tahap kecerdasan emosi menyediakan maklumat berharga kepada pensyarah dalam menilai keberkesanan diri dan seterusnya menjadi pemangkin ke arah peningkatan kualiti sumber manusia. Terdapat kemungkinan bahawa pensyarah yang tinggi kecerdasan emosi berkemungkinan mempunyai komitmen pekerjaan dan komitmen organisasi yang tinggi, kerana individu sebegini mengenali siapa dirinya, sentiasa menjaga hubungan yang baik dengan orang lain serta cuba menjadi pekerja terbaik. Memahami apa yang membuat pemimpin yang paling berkesan dalam suatu organisasi sangat penting dalam persekitaran pekerjaan yang kompleks saat ini. Pihak pengurusan universiti perlu mengenal pasti dan mengembangkan kerjaya para pensyarah yang mempunyai potensi kepimpinan yang tinggi untuk tetap bertahan. Dengan jumlah kajian yang terhad maka adalah satu keperluan untuk menjalankan kajian yang menilai pengaruh personaliti terhadap prestasi kerjaya.<br /><br />Berdasarkan statistik yang dikeluarkan untuk Jabatan Pengajian Tinggi Malaysia 2009, didapati bahawa terdapat 2,616 orang pensyarah wanita yang telah memiliki ijazah kedoktoran di seluruh universiti-universiti awam di Malaysia. Namun hanya terdapat 366 (14%) orang sahaja tenaga akademik wanita yang memiliki ijazah kedoktoran menjawat jawatan Profesor berbanding 1259 (28%) tenaga akademik lelaki. Manakala bagi jawatan Profesor Madya pula terdapat 1349 (14%) sahaja tenaga akademik wanita yang memiliki ijazah kedoktoran menjawat jawatan Profesor Madya berbanding 2257 (51%) tenaga akademik lelaki. Ini menunjukkan bahawa jawatan tertinggi yang dijawat oleh wanita masih kecil jika dibandingkan dengan lelaki walaupun mempunyai mempunyai kelayakan ijazah kedoktoran. Ini selari dengan hujah yang dinyatakan oleh Ng et al., (2005), yang menegaskan bahawa terdapat perbezaan dalam prestasi kerjaya berdasarkan jantina. Maka kajian ini akan mengambil inisiatif bagi mengenal pasti sama ada perbezaan tersebut disebabkan oleh faktor-faktor individu, organisasi, personaliti komitment atau kopentensi seseorang tenaga akademik.<br /><br />Kajian-kajian lepas juga menunjukkan bahawa terdapat hubungan yang positif antara komitment terhadap kerjaya dan prestasi kerjaya (Simo, Enache, Leyes, & Alarcón, 2010). Hampir kebanyakan faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi prestasi kerjaya adalah juga faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi komitment terhadap kerjaya. Oleh itu kajian ini menjawab persoalan adakah komitmen terhadap kerjaya adalah variable penengah antara variable bebas dan variable bersandar iaitu prestasi kerjaya.<br /><br />Oleh itu kajian ini akan cuba menjawab beberapa persoalan: Mengapa terdapat perbezaan prestasi kerjaya antara tenaga akademik lelaki dan wanita? Apakah faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi komitmen terhadap prestasi kerjaya dan prestasi kerjaya tenaga akademik universiti. Apakah faktor yang paling utama dalam mempengaruhi komitmen dan prestasi kerjaya. Kajian ini akan menjalankan usahausaha bagi menjawab kesemua persoalan yang dikemukakan, bagi menutupi sebanyak mungkin jurang pengetahuan yang wujud dalam bidang prestasi kerjaya di sektor pengajian tinggi awam di Malaysia.<br /><br />Objektif Kajian<br />Objektif Umum<br />Secara umumnya kajian ini mengkaji faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi prestasi kerjaya komitmen terhadap kerjaya sebagai variabel penengah bagi tenaga akademik di universiti awam di Malaysia.<br /><br />Objektif Spesifik<br />i) Mengenalpasti hubungan antara ciri-ciri individu (efikasi kendiri, penghargaan diri dan aspirasi terhadap kerjaya) dan prestasi kerjaya.<br />ii) Mengenalpasti hubungan antara faktor-faktor organisasi (efikasi kendiri, penghargaan diri dan aspirasi terhadap kerjaya) dan prestasi kerjaya.<br />iii) Mengenalpasti hubungan antara faktor-faktor personaliti (personaliti proaktif kebolehan kognitif, dan kecerdasan emosi) dan prestasi kerjaya.<br />iv) Mengenalpasti hubungan antara faktor-faktor kompetensi (pengurusan kerjaya, rangkaian sosial, dan kemahiran komputer) dan prestasi kerjaya.<br />v) Mengenalpasti hubungan antara ciri-ciri individu (efikasi kendiri, penghargaan diri dan aspirasi terhadap kerjaya) dan komitmen terhadap kerjaya.<br />vi) Mengenalpasti hubungan antara faktor-faktor organisasi (efikasi kendiri, penghargaan diri dan aspirasi terhadap kerjaya) dan komitmen terhadap kerjaya.<br />vii) Mengenalpasti hubungan antara faktor-faktor personaliti (personaliti proaktif kebolehan kognitif, dan kecerdasan emosi) dan komitmen terhadap kerjaya.<br />viii) Mengenalpasti hubungan antara faktor-faktor kompetensi (pengurusan kerjaya, rangkaian sosial, dan kemahiran komputer) dan komitmen terhadap kerjaya.<br />ix) Mengenalpasti hubungan antara komitmen terhadap kerjaya dan prestasi kerjaya.<br />x) Mengenalpasti perbezaan prestasi kerjaya berdasarkan jantina.<br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />Kerangka Teori<br /><br />References<br />Boudreau, J. W., Boswell, W. R., & Judge, T. J. (2001). Effects of personality on executive career success in the U.S. and Europe. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 58(1), 53–81.<br /><br />Witte, R. (2004) Emotional intelligence and career success among the highly intelligent<br /><br />Effects Of Emotional Intelligence And Career Commitment On Career Success<br /><br />Seibert and Kraimer (2001) Effects Of Emotional Intelligence And Career Commitment On Career Success, Journal of Vocational Behaviour 58(1) February 2001, 1-21.<br /><br />Seibert, S., Kraimer, M., and Crant, M. (2001). What Do Proactive People Do? A Longitudinal Model Linking Proactive Personality And Career Success, Personnel Psychology 54, (4), 845–874.<br /><br />Norhasni, Z. A., & Ahmad R. (2008). Kerjaya sebagai persyarah. PTS Professional Publishing Sdn Bhd.<br /><br />Kementerian Pengajian Tinggi Malaysia (2004). Memperkasa Institusi Pengajian Tinggi. Pelan Strategik Pengajian Tinggi Malaysia.<br /><br />Simo, P., Enache, M., Leyes, J. M., Alarcón, V. F., (2010). Analysis Of The Relation Between Subjective Career Success, Organizational Commitment And The Intention To Leave The Organization Pep Transylvanian Reviewof Administrative Sciences, 29(1) 144-158Al-Mansor Abu saidhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09355698983918954375noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8427095828809940450.post-38503039856677868252010-10-10T05:30:00.001-07:002010-10-10T05:30:55.091-07:00Effect of Personality Proactive and Learning Motivation on Career DevelopmentEffect of Personality Proactive and Learning Motivation on Career Development<br /><br />Background Study<br />The organization currently is undergoing a transformation which involves a change in assignment and job placement. One of the severe impact of this situation is difficult to effectively carry out the work and relevant to meet the needs of their lives. If not taken seriously at the time of his career will just be status quo. The uncertainty of the attitude and career direction as a result of environmental changes that occur can lead to confusion in the course of his career by Lum, Kervin, Clark, Reid & Sirola (1998) quoting from Michaels and Spector, (1982). . For those who have careers seharusnyalah try to improve or enhance performance, and at least try to avoid deterioration.<br /><br /><br />Hall (1976) expressed faith is the career is the behaviour and individual behaviour combined with work experience and do an activity in their lives for a lifetime. Hall (2002) also states that the meaning of careers that traditionally only focused on the only professionals and organizations that have a degree and hierarchical. Now this definition is expanded to account for jobs that require individual experience and assignment-critical and challenging assignments. However in theory the individual career path that goes through several stages where it starts with the seeding (recruitment) further development (growth), maturity (maturity), the decline (decline) and in the end or retirement (retrenchment).<br /><br /><br />Career Development<br />Ongoing activities to improve or change careers so that the resulting set career satisfaction as career development. McDanieals and Gysbers (1992) define career development as a summary of factors psychology, sociology, information, physical, economic and desire to establish a career change for the life of the individual. Bernes and Magnusson (1996) makes the definition of career development is a process to achieve specialization in the profession and fulfill the aspirations of organizations, including the provision of career information for workers, help workers recognize the motivation of career opportunities, promote the achievement of job satisfaction and improve employee productivity.<br /><br />Watts (2003) reflect an ongoing process of career development is concerned with the work and learning. As the process takes place it will determine the level and quality of these individuals about the purpose it works, benefits available, and also affects the social and economic relations with its surroundings. Watts also considers the development of technology and globalization make the organization now needs to change. The individual must be changed according to changes in the organization to remain relevant and acceptable to work with a desire to learn new skills.<br /><br />Career development in the public sector also has its own importance is measured by the influence of attitudes and values of individual employees. Watts (2003) still suggest that a career in public service could be improved in three aspects. First, realize the importance of effective learning while the second is the importance of the individual is effective in the job market and the third is important for individuals to contribute to equality, justice for seizing opportunities and promoting social harmony. This way people can help others take advantage of existing and raise their aspirations to advance in career.<br /><br />Relationship with proactive personality and career development.<br />Changes, increase or improvement in the profession is a form of career development. This form of attitude or behaviour and desire for change and is one of the proactive dimension. Bateman and Crant (1993) asserts that proactive personality is a result of restructuring actions. Crant (1995) states this is the attitude of proactive personality that can make changes to the environment without the constraints of the situation at the border and has its own strength. The study also found that individuals who will act proactively to learn of any changes because they will be able to identify and take opportunities for a change in their favor (Seibert 1999). He also pointed out that individuals who do not exhibit a proactive personality will be more reactive and can only be in the status quo in their career contacts.<br /><br />Seibert, Kraimer and Crant (2001) states that studies made show proactive personality is closely linked to the attitude or behaviour of initiative, innovation and motivation to have a positive relationship with career advancement and career satisfaction. Proactive personality is related to the objective and subjective dimensions of career development include influences such as demographics, human capital, motivation, type of organization and type of activity (Seibert, Crant, & Kraimer, 1999). According to Frese and Fay (2001) referred to the behavioural attitude of the initiative of individual desire to do more ahead of the task should be to build a purpose to be achieved. They also explained the work area to complete the assignment referred to the initiative than the levels directed, aspire to achieve high resolution, beyond the obstacles and find effective solutions to improve performance. According Bardwick in his book The Trap Plateauing cited by Appelbaum and Santiago (1997) in their study said that the desire to succeed are coveted by a person will only be a liability if the horizontal career (career plateau) reached the level of the individual making too disappointed, a little contribution to the work force, there is no satisfaction in career and achievement and performance is too low.<br /><br />Guidance for career development is divided into two parts. First the objectives refer to the work activity of the product or service quality of the career services office. The second is subjective, such as position, position, rank, salary and benefits. Things are more dominant on the hierarchical organization such as the security organization whose career development practice to the promotion, establishment and location. (Hall and Chandler, 2005). Grzeda (1999) says that career change is interpreted as a proactive measure to the work activity is influenced by environmental and individual grievances to the atmosphere that is not balanced on their work.<br /><br />Relationships with learning motivation and career development<br />Economic activity has led to a proliferation of scientific knowledge and conducted a substitute activities such as installation and commodity industries has fallen (Beck 1995). The ability of individuals to explore the growing field of science education and attract more people to learn. Cappelli, Clarke and Clegg, Parker (2000) organized than rely solely on formal training and guidance from senior individuals need to build their own capacity through self learning or experience that travelled throughout the assignment or social environment. Lessons derived from the two ways the first way, when affected by the results of the work experience and activities that are done and the second through self-study (self directed learning) or an earlier action by individual motivation of knowledge (Kolb, 2001).<br /><br />Hovliaras (2007) organize the direction and goals for their career path is to constantly get updates on trends, technologies and legislative changes as well as having high skills through continuing education. This proactive approach is important in career planning and career can broaden their perspectives on whether to continue existing career or switch to another career motivation, the result of lessons learned. The concept of the learning obtained in this way is the concept of independent learning (self directed learning) to be associated with motivation and proactive attitude.<br /><br />Learning not only through the formal process of self learning but also includes learning groups, enrolled in institutions of learning, the discussion in the professional seminar. At this time of extended learning through journal writing, articles and academic papers are included in the Internet is a self-learning features. This learning process is also a motivational attitude get career competencies that can change the work culture and environment.<br /><br />Theories suggest that the maturity level of students who get a lot of benefits from the opportunities of learning motivation in a flexible, self, and experience that are not directly related to learning needs. (Knowles, 1978). Mature students are more successful are those who know to take the opportunity to exploit their motivation to improve attitudes towards learning initiatives and producing their career development (Corno, 1993).<br /><br />Problem Statement<br />Typically, the middle management level career will suffer the greatest impact on the decline in learning ability, skills and attitudes based on their demographic factors. (Warr and Fay, 2001). This phenomenon is causing a decline in the development and advancement of their careers so they changed to a higher step or to be able to maintain the existing situation or status quo.<br /><br />Appelbaum and Santiago (1997) made a study of career development in the organization of the horizontal (plateued organization) said that his career was flat (plateued career) was when after a number of career achievements by an individual then has the same condition without any changes for a period of time. This situation arises when the prospects of limited positions and ranks, and forcing people to think the future career plans and strategies to move into other areas. The researcher also made a prediction that there will be an opportunity for a career as an executive for the 20 candidates who qualified at this time. Most executives now have reached the stage of his career, both horizontally and concern to those who raise the pressure on their career development in an organization.<br /><br />At this stage there is ambiguity (ambiguity) or uncertainty (uncertainty) on the next direction his career if not supported or supervised. Individuals are not able to plan his own career if it was the ambiguity.<br /><br />Figure 1.0<br />Figure line career development<br /><br />One of the proposed opinion should have a group of middle managers to sustain or advance their careers should be able to handle this problem. Group of middle managers in an organization that used for the study are those who have had service for at least 15 years. At this stage they also had to undergo several career courses to qualify them to achieve the rank positions. Career path they have reached the stage of maturity and proper to hold office for a few years of service. In fact, many of them through 25 years of service in the same position.<br /><br />If learning can change the perspective and behaviour of individuals against the needs of the organization to move forward or changing attitudes may be a matter for career development. Learning elements can be used as a foundation for change moving forward into the future. Learning can not act alone without any wish or desire of the self. Arises from the nature of that desire to change that arise from the motivation for the better. The need to increase the motivation to encourage the acquisition of knowledge which will benefit the employee performance and organizational performance. The factors mentioned above can form the behaviour and attitude towards work, which can change the perspective of career development. This determination has been made in research and pro-active and motivated to prove that having an influence on career development that affect change on the workers in the research environment. Is this determination can be applied to the local environment and to guide the formation of the right personality to avoid contributing a career in the Malaysian context. More elaborate this issue to the public and focus on the lecturer.<br /><br />1.6 Importance of Study<br />This study was to explore and identify proactive personality and sustained motivation for individuals to be able to change the course of his career to the career of the more advanced and excellent. It also will be the agenda and preparation for their upcoming action that will achieve the level of maturity based on their demographic factors. Scientific assessment of career development has been made in Western countries. They realize the importance of maintaining a career as they face the competition is very high in his career. We have not faced a situation like in Western countries where only those who are educated, skilled and progress will be having a good job market or get a chance. This study is expected to alter the strength of proactive personality and motivation for learning can influence an individual to get out of the pomegranate decline in interest in careers in the contact work environment in Malaysia in general and particularly in public. Proactive personality is also expected to be the driving motivation to be able to fill the gaps in moral decline and the concentration of an individual who has a career maturity and experience in order not to switch career interest. This phenomenon is detrimental to the organization if they decide to quit or retire early. While the motivation was to provide greater opportunities to those who have had an academic recognition for the expanding career opportunities.<br /><br /><br />2.1 Previous Research Career Development<br />Schultze and Miller (2003) stated that career development is not applicable if the individual will experience depression and a decline in his career. This decline is a fact of life that must be in a period in the span of their careers. This process appears to occur with the first signs of deterioration, if not controlled will lead to a worse situation. The second stage of this decline with the overall feeling of completion and the job vacancy. The third is the feeling of emptiness will lead to the emergence of a mixed feeling of emptiness. Approach close to the true meaning of counselling and career development through activities and showed a good job and learn the experience will form a positive attitude to overcome the downturn.<br /><br />Barnett and Bradley (2007) examine the relationship between organizational support of career development and job satisfaction of individuals. The study was conducted on 90 workers in various capacities in public and private sectors in Australia found that proactive personality and career management behaviour has a positive relationship with job satisfaction. Social cognitive career model based on theory (SCCT) and integrated to model the behaviour of proactive and Organisational support career development (OSCD) showed no relationship between the behaviour of career management to support the organization. This means career development depends on the attitude and behaviour of individuals is formed by SCCT.<br /><br />Grzeda (1999) conducted studies on the managers and employees who were dismissed or quit voluntarily in Canada. This study aims to find the strength or personality to be there for the individual employee is able to survive or remain in their careers. The results of the examination of variables such as stress careers (career resilient) with the dimensions of the effectiveness of the self (self-efficacy) and risk-taking (risk taking) is associated with career development was found that the resistance can change the stance of individual careers who wish to quit and move on to careers other. Career resilience is the attitude or behaviour that requires changes in individual motivation in career development. Each individual changes that occur in any relevance to environmental careers proactively.<br /><br />Previous Research On Learning Motivation<br />Major, Turner and Fletcher (2006) conduct a study to examine the relationship, proactive personality with career development activities. They also connected the 'big five' facet to the concept of development, but focuses on two variables: the proactive personality and motivation. Studies carried out on the 183rd of workers in the U.S. financial firms and found that the most significant relationship is between the strong and proactive with the personalities of development compared to other factors contained in the facet 'big five'. In addition, it also appears that the motivation was positively related to the development. In the regression was significant relationship between motivation and learning with proactive personality. Examination of the data obtained through questionnaires respondents conducted to examine the relationship and the relationship between all dimensions of the 'big five' on career development activities. The result found that motivation to be a link factor between these two variables. The findings from this study indicate that if it is applied to the career needs of individuals who have a strong personality and a desire to learn and make them more effective and relevant.<br /><br />Judge and Mueller (2007) in his study are still interested in the relationship that has been going on between proactive personality with career advancement. Previous studies by researchers show that a positive relationship exists between these two variables. In fact, many researchers want to see in the contact situation and their own environment. The studies were still not shifted from examining the relationship between the five-factor model of career development. The evidence clearly when the personality to be the strongest influencing factor than the other four factors under the five-factor model.<br /><br />Table 2.0<br />Summary of work on the issue and spotlight the gap<br />(A) Schultze and Miller, 2003 There are no career development will lead to depression and deterioration of individual achievement. You need a positive attitude to overcome. Gap: The need the desire to change is proactive.<br />(B) Barnett and Bradley 2007 career development process requires the support of the organization. If there is no support for the individual career satisfaction is not achieved. Gap: The strength of desire for change from the individuals themselves.<br />(C) Grzeda 1999 Career development is associated with resistance to career, personal effectiveness and risk-taking is a form of proactive personality. This could stem from a desire to quit and retire early. Gap: Must create motivation for change as well as a proactive personality.<br />(D) Lau and Shaffer 1999 sees the existence of the relevance of proactive personality with career progress objectively and subjectively. Proactive personality plays a big role in organizational change. Gap: Try to associate with the motivation, desire for change and a desire to learn something good.<br />(E) Chiaburu, Baker and Pitariu (2006) Review of the relationship between the resistance in the career of proactive personality and career development. The study found a positive relationship in which the power of proactive personality would strengthen the resilience of his career. Career resilience is the result of self-motivation. Gap: There should be motivation to change.<br />(F) Gutknecht 2003 Study on the desire to stop or get out of military service to see the proactive personality as determinants of the decision. Found that proactive personality to be a major factor in the decision. Lose interest and focus on results from the lack of proper attention. Gap: The changes have arisen from his own personal motivation.<br />(G) Veldhoven and Dorenbosch (2008): To study the relevance of age, proactive and career development. Age has a positive association with pro-active but not related to career development. Negative correlation was between age, is associated with proactive career opportunities but as the practice of HRD is included as a variable relationship turned positive. Gap: Other external factors such as organizational behaviour and management support is also considered important.<br />(H) Major, Turner and Fletcher's (2006): study of the relationship with the proactive personality and career development activities. Connecting the 'big five' facet of the development concept of proactive personality and motivation. Motivation was positively related to career development. Gap: This study examines the behaviour of individuals, should also take into account the environment and organizational behaviour to see the changes to occur.<br />(I) Judge and Mueller (2007): His study of the relationship has been going on between proactive personality with career advancement. Examining the relationship between the five factor model of career development. Gap: Personality proved to be the strongest influencing factor than the four other factors also must take into account the environment and the occurrence of this study should look at the organization where the research.<br /><br />In conclusion, proactive personality is a lot of changing circumstances such as career commitment, loyalty, flexibility, creativity and initiative along with the desire for change proved to have great influence in career development. Change is not easily accessible without the individual strength of the motivation for change arises. Changes to the benefits to be learned, the motivation is essential to ensure a proactive basis. Study of proactive personality with career development has been done with so much over the past two decades. However, further studies can be made by taking other factors as mediators between the two is related tasks such as motivation, social relationships and goal setting.<br /><br />Theory Framework<br />Dependent variable for this study is focused on the purpose of career development also implies progress in their careers. For the independent variables to study the proactive personality with the purpose of such initiatives, innovation and change. While the motivation as well as the following independent variables such as self-study mean (self-directed learning).<br /><br /><br /><br />Figure 2<br />Theoretical framework for the independent variables on the dependent variable<br />Proactive personality and learning motivation as an independent variable will be tested on the career development of the dependent variable.<br /><br />Definition of Concepts<br />According to Cambridge Advanced Dictionary defines career as a network service or work done in life to meet the needs of life should be continued and generate income. While the definition of development is moving and changing things to better conditions.<br /><br />The definition is also proactive measures taken to bring the change but not to actions taken after the event occurred. Proactive personality is defined as the styles, feelings and behaviours related to a condition indicated that lead to change. According to the Oxford Dictionary, Indonesia is a proactive attitude to change or control the situation by taking the initiative and expects the situation to be accepted and acted in advance to overcome the situation.<br /><br />The definition of motivation is the desire to learn and improve specific knowledge that arises from the self is driven by the development of training programs. Noe (1986) suggests that the willingness and ability to acquire knowledge in the areas of career training contact is a motivation if no individual motivation may be deemed to have failed to get the knowledge provided by training programs.<br /><br />Hypothesis<br />To test and examine the relationship between the dependent variable with independent variables of this study to formulate the following hypothesis;<br /><br />Ho1: There is a positive relationship between proactive personality and career development.<br />Ha1: There was a positive relationship between proactive personality and career development.<br />Ho2: There is no relationship between proactive personality and the motivation of learning.<br />Ha2: There is the relationship between proactive personality and the motivation of learning.<br />Ho3: There is a positive relationship between learning motivation and career development.<br />Ha3: There was a positive relationship between learning motivation and career development.<br />Ho4: There was no significant influence of proactive personality and motivation towards career development.<br />Ha4: There was significant influence of proactive personality and motivation, learning and career development.<br /><br />Definition of Operations<br />This study used the concept of proactive personality developed by Crant and Bateman (1993) which by definition it is a passion to create the effect of changes in the individual actions that affect the environment. This concept is associated with the operation of the purposes recommended by Crant (1999) on the proactive personality with the purpose of such initiative, take action and make meaningful changes. Items for the proactive personality scale of 8 items created by Bateman and Crant (1993). The questionnaire given to respondents to answer in a way offers a choice of 1 (extremely disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) on a Likert scale.<br /><br />Motivation was measured using a scale of 10 items developed Perry and Porter (1982) to strengthen the relationship between motivation and influence on career development. Respondents will be given a questionnaire containing the 5-point agreement scale from 1 (extremely disagree) to 5 (most agree). Model studies also examine the relationship between proactive personality and motivation that influence career development. There is evidence that personality factors have an influence on the development of such training. Additional examination of the relationship is also seen in the influence of proactive personality on motivation directly or indirectly.Al-Mansor Abu saidhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09355698983918954375noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8427095828809940450.post-14241795994026630692010-10-10T02:49:00.000-07:002010-10-10T05:14:54.643-07:00PENGARUH PERSONALITI PROAKTIF DAN MOTIVASI PEMBELAJARAN KEATAS PEMBANGUNAN KERJAYAPENGARUH PERSONALITI PROAKTIF DAN MOTIVASI PEMBELAJARAN KEATAS PEMBANGUNAN KERJAYA<br /><br />Latar belakang Kajian<br />Organisasi sekarang sedang mengalami perubahan yang mana melibatkan perubahan dari segi penugasan dan penempatan kerja. Salah satu perkara yang menerima impak dari suasana ini adalah kesukaran menjalankan pekerjaan secara efektif dan relevan bagi menampung keperluan kehidupan mereka. Jika tidak diambil perhatian secara serius kerjaya pada masa ini akan hanya bersifat status quo. Ketidakpastian bentuk sikap dan hala tuju kerjaya akibat dari perubahan persekitaran yang berlaku menyebabkan kekeliruan dalam perjalanan kerjaya menurut Lum, Kervin, Clark, Reid & Sirola (1998) yang memetik dari Michaels dan Spector, (1982). .Bagi mereka yang telah berkerjaya seharusnyalah berusaha memperbaiki atau meningkatkan pencapaian dan setidak-tidaknya berusaha mengelakkan dari kemerosotan.<br /><br />Hall (1976) menyatakan fahamannya berkenaan kerjaya adalah perilaku dan gelagat individu digabungkan dengan pengalaman bekerja dan melakukan suatu aktiviti di dalam kehidupannya untuk sepanjang hayat. Hall (2002) juga menyatakan secara tradisinya bahawa pengertian kerjaya itu hanya ditumpukan kepada golongan profesional sahaja dan organisasi yang mempunyai tingkatan dan hiraki. Kini definisi ini telah lebih diperluaskan mencakupi pekerjaan yang memerlukan pengalaman individu dan penugasan-penugasan kritikal serta mencabar. Namun begitu secara teorinya perjalanan kerjaya individu akan melalui beberapa peringkat yang mana ianya bermula dengan penyemaian (recruitment) seterusnya perkembangan (growth), kematangan (maturity), kemerosotan (decline) dan di akhiri persaraan atau pemberhentian (retrenchment).<br /><br />Pembangunan kerjaya<br />Aktiviti yang berterusan dalam meningkatkan atau mengubah kerjaya sehingga terhasil kepuasan kerjaya dinyatakan sebagai pembangunan kerjaya. McDanieals dan Gysbers (1992) mendefinisikan pembangunan kerjaya sebagai rangkuman faktor psikologi, sosiologi, pengetahuan, fizikal, ekonomi dan keinginan untuk berubah membentuk kerjaya individu tersebut bagi sepanjang kehidupannya. Bernes dan Magnusson (1996) membuat definisi berkenaan pembangunan kerjaya adalah proses untuk mencapai pengkhususan dalam kerjaya dan memenuhi hasrat organisasi, termasuklah menyediakan maklumat kerjaya kepada pekerja, membantu pekerja mengenali motivasi dalam peluang kerjaya, menggalakkan pencapaian kepuasan kerja dan membaiki produktiviti kerja pekerja.<br /><br />Watts (2003) menyatakan pembangunan kerjaya adalah proses berterusan yang bersangkutan dengan kerja dan pembelajaran. Sebagaimana proses itu berlaku ianya akan menentukan tahap dan kualiti individu tersebut tentang tujuan ia bekerja, ganjaran yang didapati dan juga mempengaruhi hubungan sosial dan ekonomi dengan persekitarannya. Watts juga berpendapat perkembangan teknologi dan era globalisasi menjadikan organisasi sekarang perlu kepada perubahan. Individu perlu berubah mengikut perubahan organisasi supaya mereka masih relevan dan boleh diterima bekerja dengan mempunyai keazaman untuk mempelajari kemahiran yang baru.<br /><br />Pembangunan kerjaya di dalam sektor awam juga mempunyai kepentingan sendiri diukur dengan pengaruh sikap dan nilai individu pekerja. Watts (2003) masih mencadangkan bahawa kerjaya di perkhidmatan awam boleh dipertingkatkan dengan tiga aspek. Pertama, sedar pentingnya pembelajaran yang berkesan manakala keduanya pula adalah pentingnya individu berkesan dalam pasaran kerja dan ketiga adalah penting kepada individu dapat memberikan sumbangan kepada kesaksamaan, keadilan untuk merebut peluang dan mempromosikan keharmonian sosial. Cara ini dapat membantu individu yang lain mengambil peluang yang ada dan menaikkan aspirasi mereka untuk maju dalam<br />kerjaya.<br /><br />1.1.2 Hubungan personaliti proaktif dengan pembangunan kerjaya.<br />Perubahan, peningkatan atau penambahbaikan di dalam kerjaya merupakan satu bentuk pembangunan kerjaya. Ini terbentuk dari sikap atau gelagat keinginan untuk berubah dan merupakan salah satu dimensi proaktif. Bateman dan Crant (1993) menegaskan bahawa personaliti proaktif adalah hasil dari penyusunan semula tindakan. Crant (1995) menyatakan personaliti proaktif ini adalah sikap yang mampu memberi kesan perubahan kepada persekitaran tanpa di batas oleh kekangan situasi dan mempunyai kekuatan tersendiri. Kajian juga mendapati individu yang proaktif akan bertindak mempelajari apa-apa perubahan kerana mereka akan mampu mengenal pasti dan mengambil peluang melakukan satu perubahan yang menguntungkan mereka (Seibert 1999). Beliau juga menegaskan bahawa individu yang tidak mempamerkan personaliti proaktif akan lebih reactive dan hanya mampu berada pada tahap status quo di dalam kontak kerjaya mereka.<br /><br />Seibert, Kraimer dan Crant (2001) menyatakan bahawa kajian yang dibuat menunjukkan personaliti proaktif berkait rapat dengan sikap atau gelagat berinisiatif, berinovasi dan motivasi pembelajaran yang mempunyai hubung kait yang positif dengan peningkatan kerjaya dan kepuasan kerjaya. Personaliti proaktif juga mempunyai hubungan secara objektif dan subjektif dengan kemajuan kerjaya meliputi dimensi mempengaruhi seperti demografi, modal insan, motivasi, jenis organisasi dan jenis aktiviti (Seibert, Crant, & Kraimer, 1999). Menurut Frese dan Fay (2001) sikap berinisiatif dirujuk kepada gelagat kemahuan individu untuk melakukan perkara yang lebih ke hadapan dari tugasan yang sepatutnya dan membina satu tujuan untuk dicapai. Mereka juga menjelaskan di bidang pekerjaan inisiatif dirujuk kepada menyempurnakan tugasan melebihi dari paras yang diarahkan, bercita-cita mencapai ketetapan yang tinggi, melepasi halangan dan mencari jalan penyelesaian secara berkesan memperbaiki pencapaiannya. Menurut Bardwick dalam bukunya The Plateauing Trap yang dipetik oleh Appelbaum dan Santiago (1997) dalam kajian mereka mengatakan bahawa keinginan untuk berjaya yang diidamkan oleh<br />seseorang hanya akan menjadi liabiliti jika keadaan kerjaya mendatar (career plateau) mencapai tahap menjadikan individu terlalu kecewa, sumbangan tenaga yang sedikit kepada pekerjaan, tiada kepuasan yang wujud dalam kerjaya dan pencapaian dan prestasi kerja yang terlalu rendah.<br /><br />Petunjuk bagi kemajuan kerjaya dibahagikan kepada dua bahagian. Pertama secara objektifnya merujuk kepada hasil aktiviti pekerjaan iaitu produk atau mutu perkhidmatan bagi kerjaya pelayanan perkhidmatan. Kedua pula adalah secara subjektif seperti jawatan, kedudukan, pangkat, kenaikan gaji dan ganjaran. Perkara ini lebih dominan kepada organisasi yang berhierarki seperti organisasi keselamatan yang mana kemajuan kerjaya dipraktikkan dengan kenaikan pangkat, perjawatan dan kedudukan. (Hall dan Chandler, 2005). Grzeda (1999) mengatakan bahawa perubahan kerjaya juga ditafsirkan sebagai tindakan proaktif terhadap aktiviti kerja yang dipengaruhi oleh persekitaran dan ketidakpuasan hati individu terhadap suasana yang tidak seimbang terhadap kerja mereka.<br /><br />Hubungan motivasi pembelajaran dengan pembangunan kerjaya<br />Kegiatan ekonomi kini telah mengarah kepada percambahan ilmu dan dikendalikan secara ilmiah yang menggantikan kegiatan berupa industri pemasangan dan komoditi yang telah tertinggal (Beck 1995). Kemampuan individu untuk menerokai bidang ilmu pembelajaran semakin meningkat dan menarik ramai orang untuk mempelajarinya. Cappelli , Clarke dan Clegg, Parker (2000) menganjurkan dari hanya bergantung kepada latihan yang formal dan panduan dari atasan individu perlu untuk membina kemampuan sendiri melalui pembelajaran kendiri atau pengalaman yang dilalui sepanjang penugasan atau persekitaran sosial. Pembelajaran terhasil dari dua cara iaitu melalui cara pertama apabila dipengaruhi oleh pengalaman hasil dari kerja dan aktiviti yang dibuat dan kedua melalui pembelajaran kendiri (self directed learning) atau tindakan lebih awal oleh individu terhadap motivasi ilmu ( Kolb 2001).<br /><br />Hovliaras (2007) menganjurkan arah dan hala tuju untuk laluan kerjaya adalah dengan sentiasa memperoleh perkembangan terbaru mengenai tren, teknologi dan perubahan perundangan serta memiliki kemahiran yang tinggi menerusi pembelajaran berterusan. Pendekatan secara proaktif ini merupakan perencanaan yang penting dalam kerjaya dan boleh meluaskan perspektif terhadap kerjaya sedia ada sama ada meneruskan kerjaya atau beralih kepada kerjaya yang lain hasil dari motivasi pembelajaran yang diperoleh. Konsep memperoleh pembelajaran melalui cara ini adalah konsep pembelajaran kendiri (self directed learning) yang mempunyai hubung kait dengan motivasi dan sikap proaktif.<br /><br />Pembelajaran bukan sahaja melalui proses secara formal malah pembelajaran kendiri juga termasuk pembelajaran secara kumpulan, menyambung pelajaran di institusi pembelajaran, semasa perbincangan dalam seminar profesional. Pada masa ini pembelajaran diperluaskan menerusi penulisan journal, artikel dan kertas akademik yang dimasukkan ke dalam internet merupakan ciri-ciri pembelajaran kendiri. Proses pembelajaran ini juga merupakan satu sikap memperoleh motivasi kompetensi kerjaya yang mampu mengubah persekitaran dan budaya kerja.<br /><br />Teori pembelajaran mengesyorkan bahawa peringkat pelajar yang matang mendapat banyak faedah dari peluang yang wujud dari motivasi pembelajaran secara fleksibel, kendiri, pengalaman dan yang tidak secara langsung berkaitan dengan keperluan pembelajaran. (Knowles, 1978). Pelajar matang yang lebih berjaya adalah mereka yang tahu mengambil peluang mengeksploitasi tahap motivasi mereka terhadap pembelajaran dapat memperbaiki sikap inisiatif mereka dan menghasilkan pembangunan kerjaya (Corno, 1993).<br /><br />Pernyataan Masalah<br />Lazimnya kumpulan kerjaya peringkat pengurusan pertengahan akan mengalami kesan yang paling besar terhadap penurunan kemampuan dari segi pembelajaran, kemahiran dan sikap berdasarkan faktor demografi mereka.(Warr dan Fay, 2001). Fenomena ini akan menyebabkan berlakunya kemerosotan kemajuan dan pembangunan kerjaya mereka yang menghalang mereka untuk berubah melangkah lebih tinggi atau untuk mampu mengekalkan keadaan sedia ada atau status quo.<br /><br />Appelbaum dan Santiago (1997) membuat kajian tentang pembangunan kerjaya di dalam organisasi yang mendatar ( plateued organization) menyatakan bahawa kerjaya yang mendatar (plateued career) adalah apabila selepas beberapa pencapaian kerjaya oleh individu kemudiannya mengalami keadaan yang sama tanpa perubahan bagi jangka masa yang tertentu. Keadaan ini timbul apabila berlakunya peluang kenaikan jawatan dan pangkat yang terhad dan memaksa individu tersebut memikirkan rancangan kerjaya akan datang dan strategi untuk mengalih ke bidang yang lain. Pengkaji juga membuat telahan bahawa akan ada satu peluang kerjaya sebagai eksekutif bagi 20 orang calon yang berkelayakan pada masa ini. Kebanyakan eksekutif sekarang telah mencapai peringkat kerjaya mendatar dan menjadi kebimbangan kepada mereka yang menimbulkan tekanan terhadap pembangunan kerjaya mereka di dalam sesebuah organisasi.<br /><br />Pada peringkat ini akan wujud kesamaran (ambiguity) atau tidak kepastian (uncertainty) berkenaan hala tuju kerjaya seterusnya jika tidak dibantu atau di awasi. Individu tersebut tidak dapat merancang kerjayanya sendiri jika ianya dalam kesamaran.<br /><br /><br />Rajah 1.0<br />Rajah garisan perkembangan kerjaya<br /><br />Satu bentuk cadangan pendapat perlu ada bagi kumpulan pengurus pertengahan untuk meneruskan pembangunan atau memajukan kerjaya mereka harusnya mampu menangani masalah ini. Kumpulan pengurus pertengahan bagi organisasi yang dijadikan sebagai bahan kajian adalah mereka yang telah menjalani perkhidmatan sekurang-kurangnya 15 tahun. Pada peringkat ini mereka juga telah menjalani berbagai kursus kerjaya untuk melayakkan mereka mencapai jawatan pangkat. Perjalanan kerjaya mereka telah sampai ke peringkat kematangan dan juga akan memegang jawatan selayaknya untuk beberapa tahun perkhidmatan. Malah ramai di antaranya melewati 25 tahun perkhidmatan dalam kedudukan yang sama.<br /><br />Jika pembelajaran mampu mengubah perspektif dan gelagat individu terhadap organisasi maka keperluan sikap untuk maju atau berubah boleh menjadi bahan untuk pembangunan kerjaya. Elemen pembelajaran boleh dijadikan landasan perubahan untuk maju bergerak ke hadapan. Pembelajaran tidak boleh beraksi bersendirian tanpa ada keinginan atau kemahuan dari diri sendiri. Keinginan itu terhasil dari sifat ingin berubah yang timbul dari motivasi untuk lebih baik. Perlunya ada motivasi sebagai pendorong untuk meningkatkan penguasaan ilmu yang mana boleh memberi manfaat kepada prestasi pekerja dan pencapaian organisasi. Faktor-faktor tersebut di atas boleh membentuk gelagat dan sikap terhadap pekerjaan yang mana boleh merubah perspektif terhadap pembangunan kerjaya. Penentuan ini telah dibuat kajian dan membuktikan bahawa proaktif dan motivasi mempunyai pengaruh ke atas pembangunan kerjaya yang membawa kesan perubahan ke atas kumpulan pekerja di persekitaran tempat kajian. Adakah penentuan ini boleh diaplikasikan ke dalam persekitaran tempatan dan menjadi panduan pembentukan personaliti yang betul bagi mengelakkan kemerosotan pencapaian kerjaya dalam konteks Malaysia. Lebih diperincikan lagi permasalahan ini kepada organisasi awam dan fokus kepada kumpulan pensyarah.<br /><br />1.6 Kepentingan Kajian<br />Kajian ini ingin meneroka dan mengenal pasti personaliti proaktif dan motivasi pembelajaran yang mampan untuk individu agar mampu merubah perjalanan kerjaya ke arah kerjaya yang lebih maju dan cemerlang. Ianya juga bakal menjadi agenda persediaan dan tindakan akan datang bagi mereka yang bakal mencapai peringkat kematangan berdasarkan faktor demografi mereka. Pengkajian secara ilmiah tentang pembangunan kerjaya telah banyak dikemukakan di negara barat. Mereka menyedari kepentingan mengekalkan kerjaya kerana mereka berdepan dengan persaingan yang amat tinggi dalam kerjaya. Kita belum menghadapi situasi seperti di negara barat yang mana hanya mereka yang berpelajaran, berkemahiran dan bersikap kemajuan akan mempunyai pasaran kerja yang baik atau memperoleh peluang. Kajian ini diharap dapat merubah bentuk kekuatan personaliti proaktif dan motivasi pembelajaran agar dapat mempengaruhi individu untuk keluar dari delima kemerosotan minat kerjaya di dalam kontak suasana pekerjaan di Malaysia amnya dan secara khususnya di IPTA. Personaliti proaktif ini juga diharapkan menjadi pendorong motivasi supaya mampu mengurangkan jurang kejatuhan moral serta konsentrasi kerjaya seorang individu yang telah matang dan berpengalaman agar tidak beralih minat kerjaya. Fenomena ini akan merugikan organisasi jika mereka mengambil keputusan untuk berhenti atau bersara awal. Manakala motivasi pembelajaran pula dapat memberi peluang yang lebih luas kepada mereka yang telah memiliki sesuatu pengiktirafan akademik untuk memperluas peluang kerjaya.<br /><br />SOROTAN KARYA<br />2.1 Kajian Lepas Pembangunan Kerjaya<br />Schultze dan Miller (2003) menyatakan bahawa jika pembangunan kerjaya tidak berlaku individu akan merasai kemurungan dan kemerosotan dalam kerjaya. Kemerosotan ini adalah satu kenyataan tentang kehidupan yang mesti di tempoh di dalam hayat kerjaya mereka. Proses ini berlaku dengan peringkat pertama muncul tanda-tanda kemerosotan jika tidak dikawal akan membawa kepada keadaan yang lebih buruk. Peringkat kedua kemerosotan ini akan meninggalkan kesan perasaan yang kurang sempurna dan kekosongan dalam pekerjaan. Ketiga pula dengan perasaan kekosongan akan membawa kepada timbulnya perasaan kekosongan bercampur. Menggunakan pendekatan kaunseling dan mendekati makna sebenar pembangunan kerjaya kajian mendapati melalui aktiviti dan pekerjaan yang baik dan pelajari pengalaman akan membentuk satu sikap yang positif untuk mengatasi masalah kemerosotan.<br /><br />Barnett dan Bradley (2007) memeriksa hubungan di antara sokongan organisasi terhadap pembangunan kerjaya dengan kepuasan kerja individu. Kajian dijalankan ke atas 90 pekerja pelbagai jawatan di sektor awam dan swasta di Australia mendapati bahawa personaliti proaktif dan gelagat pengurusan kerjaya mempunyai hubungan positif dengan kepuasan kerja. Berpandukan model Social cognitive career theory (SCCT) dan diintegrasikan dengan model gelagat proaktif serta Organisatinal support career development (OSCD) menunjukkan tiada kaitan di antara gelagat pengurusan kerjaya dengan sokongan organisasi. Ini bermakna pembangunan kerjaya banyak bergantung kepada sikap dan gelagat individu yang terbentuk dari SCCT.<br /><br />Grzeda (1999) menjalankan kajian ke atas pengurus-pengurus dan pekerja yang telah diberhentikan atau berhenti secara sukarela di Kanada. Kajian ini bertujuan untuk mencari nilai kekuatan atau personaliti yang perlu ada bagi individu pekerja itu mampu bertahan atau dikekalkan pada kerjaya mereka. Hasil dari pemeriksaan ke atas variable seperti ketahanan kerjaya (career resilient) dengan dimensi keberkesanan diri (self- efficacy) dan berani mengambil risiko (risk taking) dikaitkan dengan pembangunan kerjaya didapati bahawa ketahanan kerjaya mampu merubah pendirian individu yang berhasrat untuk berhenti dan beralih ke kerjaya lain. Ketahanan kerjaya adalah sikap atau gelagat motivasi yang memerlukan perubahan individu dalam pembangunan kerjaya. Setiap perubahan individu yang berlaku di dalam lingkungan kerjaya ada perkaitan dengan sikap proaktif.<br /><br />2.3 Kajian Lepas Berhubung Motivasi Pembelajaran<br />Major, Turner dan Fletcher (2006) menjalankan kajian bagi melihat perhubungan personaliti proaktif dengan aktiviti pembangunan kerjaya. Mereka juga menghubungkan 'big five' facet dengan konsep pembangunan tetapi menumpukan kepada dua variable iaitu personaliti proaktif dan motivasi pembelajaran. Kajian dijalankan ke atas 183 orang pekerja firma kewangan di Amerika dan mendapati hubungan yang paling nyata dan kuat adalah di antara personaliti proaktif dengan pembangunan dibandingkan dengan lain-lain faktor yang terdapat dalam facet 'big five'. Di samping itu juga didapati bahawa motivasi pembelajaran mempunyai hubungan yang positif terhadap pembangunan. Secara regresi pula terdapat perkaitan di antara motivasi pembelajaran dengan personaliti proaktif. Pemeriksaan data yang diperoleh melalui soal selidik responden dilakukan untuk melihat perhubungan dan perkaitan antara kesemua dimensi dalam 'big five' terhadap aktiviti pembangunan kerjaya. Hasilnya mendapati motivasi pembelajaran menjadi faktor penghubung di antara kedua-dua variable. Hasil dapatan dari kajian ini menunjukkan bahawa jika diaplikasikan kepada kerjaya ianya memerlukan individu yang mempunyai personaliti yang teguh dan keinginan untuk terus belajar dan menjadikan mereka lebih efektif dan relevan.<br /><br />Judge dan Mueller (2007) dalam kajiannya masih berminat melihat hubungan yang telah terjadi di antara personaliti proaktif dengan kemajuan kerjaya. Kajian sebelum ini oleh pengkaji-pengkaji membuktikan wujud hubungan yang positif di antara dua variable ini. Malahan ramai pengkaji ingin melihat dalam kontak suasana dan persekitaran mereka sendiri. Kajian dilakukan masih tidak berganjak dari memeriksa hubungan di antara model lima faktor dengan pembangunan kerjaya. Bukti jelas bila personaliti menjadi faktor mempengaruhi yang terkuat dibandingkan dengan empat lagi faktor di bawah model lima faktor tersebut.<br /><br />Jadual 2.0<br />Ringkasan sorotan karya mengenai isu dan jurang<br />Nama<br /> Tahun Isu Jurang<br />(a) (b) (c) (d)<br />Schultze dan<br />Miller 2003 Tiada pembangunan kerjaya akan membawa kepada kemurungan dan kemerosotan pencapaian individu. Perlukan satu sikap positif untuk mengatasinya. Perlukan keinginan untuk<br />berubah iaitu sikap proaktif.<br />Barnett dan Bradley 2007 Proses pembangunan kerjaya memerlukan sokongan dari organisasi. Jika tiada sokongan maka kepuasan kerjaya individu tidak tercapai. Kekuatan keinginan untuk berubah dari individu sendiri.<br />Grzeda 1999 Pembangunan kerjaya dikaitkan dengan ketahanan kerjaya, keberkesanan diri dan berani mengambil risiko adalah satu bentuk personaliti proaktif. Ini mampu membendung dari hasrat untuk berhenti dan bersara awal. Mesti wujudkan motivasi untuk berubah di samping mempunyai personaliti proaktif.<br />Lau dan Shaffer 1999 Melihat wujudnya perkaitan personaliti proaktif dengan kemajuan kerjaya secara objektif dan subjektif. Personaliti proaktif memainkan peranan yang besar dalam perubahan organisasi. Cuba kaitkan dengan motivasi , keinginan untuk berubah dan keinginan untuk belajar sesuatu yang baik.<br />Chiaburu,<br />Baker dan<br />Pitariu 2006 Mengkaji hubungan di antara ketahanan kerjaya dengan personaliti proaktif dalam pembangunan kerjaya. Kajian mendapati hubungan yang positif di mana kekuatan personaliti proaktif akan mengukuhkan ketahanan kerjaya. Ketahanan kerjaya adalah hasil dari motivasi diri. Perlu ada motivasi untuk berubah.<br />Gutknecht 2003 Kajian berkenaan keinginan untuk berhenti atau keluar dari perkhidmatan tentera dengan melihat personaliti proaktif sebagai faktor penentu keputusan. Mendapati personaliti proaktif menjadi faktor utama dalam keputusan tersebut. Hilang minat dan tumpuan hasil dari kurang mendapat perhatian sewajarnya. Perubahan perlu timbul dari diri sendiri iaitu motivasi.<br />Veldhoven dan<br />Dorenbosch 2008 Membuat kajian perkaitan umur, proaktif dan pembangunan kerjaya. Umur mempunyai perkaitan positif dengan proaktif tetapi tiada kaitan dengan pembangunan kerjaya. Hubungan yang negatif pula di antara umur, proaktif dikaitkan dengan peluang kerjaya tetapi apabila amalan PSM dimasukkan sebagai satu variable hubungan bertukar menjadi positif. Faktor luaran yang lain seperti gelagat organisasi dan sokongan pengurusan juga penting diambil kira.<br />Major, Turner dan Fletcher 2006 Kajian bagi melihat perhubungan personaliti proaktif dengan aktiviti pembangunan kerjaya. Menghubungkan 'big five' facet dengan konsep pembangunan iaitu personaliti proaktif dan motivasi pembelajaran. Motivasi pembelajaran mempunyai hubungan yang positif terhadap pembangunan kerjaya. Kajian ini melihat gelagat individu, perlu juga mengambil kira suasana dan gelagat organisasi bagi melihat perubahan untuk berlaku.<br />Judge dan<br />Mueller 2007 Kajiannya melihat hubungan yang telah terjadi di antara personaliti proaktif dengan kemajuan kerjaya. Memeriksa hubungan di antara model lima faktor dengan pembangunan kerjaya. Terbukti personaliti menjadi faktor mempengaruhi yang terkuat dibandingkan dengan empat lagi faktor Juga harus mengambil kira persekitaran dan keadaan berlakunya kajian ini Perlu melihat keadaan organisasi tempat kajian.<br /><br />Secara kesimpulannya Personaliti proaktif banyak merubah keadaan kerjaya seperti kesungguhan, ketaatan, lebih fleksibel, kreatif dan berinisiatif seiring dengan keinginan untuk berubah terbukti mempunyai pengaruh yang besar dalam pembangunan kerjaya. Perubahan itu juga tidak mudah dicapai tanpa kekuatan individu untuk berubah timbul dari motivasi. Perubahan kepada kebaikan perlu dipelajari, oleh itu motivasi pembelajaran perlu ada bagi menjamin sikap proaktif berterusan. Kajian hubungan personaliti proaktif dengan pembangunan kerjaya telah dilakukan dengan begitu banyak sejak dua dekad lagi. Namun kajian lanjut boleh dibuat dengan mengambil faktor-faktor lain sebagai mediator di antara kedua-dua hubungan ini contohnya motivasi tugas, hubungan sosial dan penetapan tujuan.<br /><br />3.1 Kerangka Teori<br />Pemboleh ubah bersandar bagi kajian ini adalah kerjaya yang memfokuskan kepada maksud pembangunan yang juga membawa erti kemajuan dalam kerjaya. Bagi pemboleh ubah bebas kajian ke atas personaliti proaktif yang mempunyai maksud seperti inisiatif, inovatif dan berubah. Manakala motivasi pembelajaran juga sebagai pemboleh ubah bebas yang berikutnya membawa maksud seperti pembelajaran kendiri (self-directed Learning).<br /><br /><br /><br />Rajah 2<br />Kerangka teori bagi pemboleh ubah bebas terhadap pemboleh ubah bersandar<br />Personaliti proaktif dan motivasi pembelajaran adalah sebagai independent variable akan diuji terhadap pembangunan kerjaya yang menjadi dependent variable.<br /><br />3.2 Definisi Konsep<br />Menurut kamus Cambridge Advance mendefinisikan kerjaya sebagai kerja atau rangkaian pekerjaan yang dilakukan di dalam kehidupan bagi menampung keperluan kehidupan sebaiknya hendaklah berterusan dan mendatangkan pendapatan. Manakala bagi definisi pembangunan adalah sesuatu perkara bergerak dan berubah kepada keadaan yang lebih baik.<br /><br />Definisi proaktif pula adalah tindakan yang dilakukan membawa kepada perubahan tetapi bukan kepada tindakan yang diambil selepas perkara tersebut berlaku. Personaliti proaktif ditakrifkan sebagai gaya, perasaan dan kelakuan yang ditunjukkan berkaitan sesuatu keadaan yang membawa kepada perubahan. Menurut Oxford English Dictionary sikap proaktif adalah mengubah atau mengawal keadaan dengan mengambil langkah inisiatif dan menjangkakan keadaan yang akan berlaku dan bertindak lebih dulu mengatasi keadaan tersebut.<br /><br />Definisi bagi motivasi pembelajaran pula adalah kemahuan yang khusus untuk belajar dan mempertingkatkan ilmu yang timbul dari diri sendiri juga didorong oleh program-program latihan pembangunan. Noe (1986) mencadangkan bahawa kemahuan dan kebolehan untuk menguasai bidang-bidang pengetahuan dalam kontak latihan kerjaya merupakan satu motivasi pembelajaran jika tanpa motivasi individu itu boleh dianggap gagal mendapatkan ilmu pengetahuan yang disediakan melalui program-program latihan.<br /><br />3.3 Hipotesis<br />Bagi menguji dan melihat perhubungan antara pemboleh ubah bersandar dengan pemboleh ubah bebas kajian ini merumuskan hipotesis berikut ;<br /><br />Ho1 : Tidak terdapat perkaitan yang positif antara personaliti proaktif dengan pembangunan kerjaya.<br />Ha1 : Wujud perkaitan yang positif antara personaliti proaktif dengan pembangunan kerjaya.<br />Ho2 : Tidak terdapat perkaitan antara personaliti proaktif dengan motivasi pembelajaran.<br />Ha2 : Wujud perkaitan antara personaliti proaktif dengan motivasi pembelajaran.<br />Ho3 : Tidak terdapat perkaitan yang positif antara motivasi pembelajaran dengan pembangunan kerjaya.<br />Ha3 : Wujud perkaitan yang positif antara motivasi pembelajaran dengan pembangunan kerjaya.<br />Ho4 : Tidak terdapat pengaruh yang signifikan antara personaliti proaktif dan motivasi pembelajaran terhadap pembangunan kerjaya.<br />Ha4 : Terdapat pengaruh yang signifikan antara personaliti proaktif dan motivasi pembelajaran dengan pembangunan kerjaya.<br /><br />3.5 Definisi Operasi<br />Kajian ini menggunakan konsep personaliti proaktif dibangunkan oleh Bateman dan Crant (1993) yang mana secara definisi nya adalah keghairahan untuk mengujudkan kesan perubahan di atas tindakan individu yang mempengaruhi persekitaran. Pengoperasian konsep ini dikaitkan dengan maksud yang dianjurkan oleh Crant (1999) mengenai personaliti proaktif dengan maksud seperti inisiatif, melakukan tindakan dan membuat perubahan yang bermakna. Item bagi personaliti proaktif menggunakan skala 8 item yang dicipta oleh Bateman dan Crant (1993). Soal selidik diberikan kepada responden untuk menjawab dengan cara menawarkan pilihan 1 (amat tidak bersetuju) hingga 5 (amat bersetuju) secara skala Likert.<br /><br />Motivasi pembelajaran ini diukur dengan menggunakan skala 10 item yang dibangunkan Perry dan Porter (1982) untuk menguatkan hubungan pengaruh di antara motivasi dengan pembangunan kerjaya. Responden akan diberi soal selidik mengandungi 5-point agreement scale dari 1 (amat tidak setuju) hingga 5 ( amat setuju). Model kajian juga memeriksa perkaitan di antara personaliti proaktif dan motivasi pembelajaran yang mempengaruhi pembangunan kerjaya. Terdapat bukti bahawa faktor personaliti mempunyai pengaruh ke atas pembangunan seperti latihan. Pemeriksaan tambahan dari hubungan tersebut juga dilihat pada pengaruh personaliti proaktif ke atas motivasi pembelajaran secara terus atau tidak langsung.Al-Mansor Abu saidhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09355698983918954375noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8427095828809940450.post-51384781842148923722010-09-21T04:06:00.000-07:002010-09-21T06:05:35.705-07:00Career commitmen and career succesCareer commitment refers to identification with and involvement in one’s occupation (Mueller et al., 1992, p. 212) and is characterized by the development of and commitment to career goals (Colarelli and Bishop, 1990). In brief, it refers to one’s motivation to work in a chosen vocation (Hall, 1971).<br /><br />People who are committed to their careers should experience more subjective career success (e.g. have more positive feelings for the career) than those who are less committed. Past studies, for example, have found that employees who commit to a job or career tend to develop attitudes consistent with that commitment (e.g. Carson et al., 1999; Kiesler, 1971). In a study of the influence of career commitment and organizational commitment on work-related outcomes, Carson et al. (1999) found medical librarians high on career commitment to have higher career satisfaction than those low on career commitment. In addition, Lee et al. (2000) in their meta-analytic study of occupational commitment found this variable to correlate positively with career satisfaction.<br /><br />People who are committed to their careers should also experience more objective career success than those who are less committed. Committed individuals should be willing to make significant investments in their careers (e.g. put forth more effort, acquire new knowledge and skills). One study, for example, found career commitment to predict learning motivation and learning transfer (Cheng and Ho, 2001). In addition, people who are committed to their career will likely set high career goals for themselves and put forth effort as well as persist in pursuing these goals even in the face of obstacles and setbacks (Colarelli and Bishop, 1990). Greater effort and perseverance generally leads to higher performance (Bandura, 1993; Locke and Latham, 1990a). High performance, in turn, should result in extrinsic rewards such as higher salaries or promotions (e.g. Greenhaus and Parasuraman, 1993) as well as intrinsic rewards such as self-satisfaction, which stem from positive appraisals that people make of themselves when their performance is successful relative to their internal standards (Bandura, 1986; Locke and Latham, 1990b).<br /><br />In sum, career commitment should lead to more successful careers in the form of other-administered rewards (e.g. salary attainment) or self-administered rewards (e.g. career satisfaction). Therefore, I propose:<br /><br />H1a. Career commitment will be positively related to salary level.<br />H1b. Career commitment will be positively related to career satisfaction.Al-Mansor Abu saidhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09355698983918954375noreply@blogger.com0